Remember Vysotsky: "... whoever comes after - let them try it"? Indeed, what will generation Z be like? If you believe sociologists and grandmothers scolding "current youth", the prospects are not very bright. Angry, cruel, infantile "adult children". Primitive consumers manipulated by the Internet. Details are in an interview with Mark Sandomierz.

Today it is customary to scold youth. Because they do not read, do not study, do not strive for anything, sit in front of a computer for hours, do not respect their elders ... There is also some truth in this, no matter how beautiful some representatives of this youth are, but for the most part they do not the most pleasant impression. Their interests, goals and aspirations are not understood by their parents - representatives of generations X and partly Y - and cause concern among sociologists and psychologists. What will they be today's children and adolescents, representatives of generation Z? What can we expect from those who will come after? How will they try themselves in adulthood, and what kind of society will they create for us?

About the present and future representatives of the generation Z E-xecutive talks with the author of 17 books on psychology, psychotherapist, candidate of medical sciences Mark Sandomirsky.

E-xecutive: What are the boundaries of the Z generation?

Mark Sandomierz:  The now popular “generational theory" arose relatively recently, at the junction of a number of disciplines: economics, demography, history, psychology ( Neil Hove, William Strauss) Accordingly, so far in this developing, interdisciplinary theory, “scaffolding” has not yet been removed and there are a number of controversial issues. So there are different estimates of the age limits of “generation Z”. For example, according to one classification, those who are born from the beginning of the “zero” are included in it. On the other - those who by the beginning of the “noughties” have not yet left adolescence. And in order to combine different approaches, it is appropriate to talk about the transitional generation from the 20th century to the 21st century - those who were born in the 1990s and up to 2010.

On the other hand, within this generation, as a large and rather heterogeneous age group, there are subgenerations. In particular, we need to talk separately about those who were born from the beginning to the mid-90s. This subgeneration has clear socially significant psychological differences. Its conditional name is the generation of “Tin”. “Tin”, as you understand it, is what in youth jargon means “wonderful” or “cool”, but in fact is derived from the word “cruelty”. For this subgeneration, cruelty is not only a norm of behavior, but its representatives evaluate it as something positive, as dignity. Accordingly, its representatives are characterized by increased aggressiveness, conflict, their cruelty literally spills out - especially among their own kind, when they are united in groups (“get into packs”). It is no accident that in recent social incidents associated with a surge of violence (for example, Manezhnaya Square), the role of the main “shock force” is played by adolescents 15-17 years old. The growth of juvenile delinquency, noted in our country in the second half of the “nulls”, also comes from here.

The described phenomenon of the growth of adolescent youth aggression is completely natural and characteristic not only for Russia, but also for most of the countries of the post-Soviet space. It captures in them the same age cohort - the last "children of perestroika" and the first "post-Soviet" children. Why are these "new young" overly aggressive? It is affected by the “echo” of social stresses of their distant childhood, which created a kind of socio-psychological “time bomb”, the antisocial effect of which is manifested now, “twenty years later”. Studies by American psychologists, designed to answer the question: where do people with aggressive, antisocial behavior, or sociopaths come from, have shown that the reason for such disorders in adult behavior lies in his early childhood experience. The more stressful a pregnant woman or young mother is in the first two or three years of a child’s life, the greater the likelihood that this child, when growing up, in adolescence and older will be aggressive and inappropriate. He will not cope with his negative emotions, will not sympathize and empathize with other people, because he simply does not know how to do this, has not absorbed the relevant stereotypes with his mother’s milk. And since the beginning and the first half of the 90s for the entire post-Soviet space were a very difficult time of mass social stresses, this affected the children born in those years. Now we are reaping the fruits of the social catastrophe of those distant years - the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Of course, the most described patterns of behavior are characteristic of the early sub-generation of post-Soviet "children of the 21st century." Those who were born from the late 90s to the present time, it would seem, do not have such an early experience of social stresses, which in adulthood becomes the basis of aggressive adaptive behavioral strategies “against all”. But, alas, the “bad” stereotypes of behavior in society, like bad habits, are contagious. The “wave” of such stereotypes in one subgeneration, raised by long-standing social disasters, extends to subsequent age groups, is adopted according to the imitation mechanism, in the image and likeness of the transmission of other aggressive behavioral stereotypes - for example, “bullying” in the army.

Based on the foregoing, it is possible to predict the "difficulties of tomorrow" in working with personnel and managing the team, when "new young people" will join it. After all, becoming employees, they must behave in a highly conflictual manner in the team, since they will consider such behavior to be natural and correct. For them, aggressiveness can look like a norm of life, both in relation to their own parents, and in relation to each other, and in relation to the leader and employees at work.

E-xecutive: What will shape the outlook on the life of representatives of generation Z? What will they be?

M.S .:  Of course, the Internet will form the views of the new generation. And already forms. After all, children now live in a different world than before: they communicate more with computers than with parents and with each other. From childhood they are immersed in the Internet, it is replaced by television - children watch cartoons on the network and play online games. Further - more, and training, and communication with peers will become more and more online. From here, from the specifics of such a virtual way of communication with the world that is familiar to the new generation, further psychological features of this generation follow. Less human communication, more technogenic. It is already clear that children and adolescents are better versed in technology, in something material, than in human emotions and in human behavior. This is reflected even in the communication of children with their parents: the communicative distance between them increases, and the chain of social inheritance, the transfer of experience is interrupted. Today, parents are less and less playing the role of authority for their children; the omniscient authority for the latter is the internet. Well, if the children do not learn from their parents, then parents begin to learn from their children (a prefiguration society that is starting to form today).

What will they be when they grow up, today's Z-children? This will be the full “digital" generation, the representatives of which will be easier to establish contact with the computer than with each other. Perhaps, in the most striking form, the psychological characteristics of the new generation can be observed in their extreme manifestations, in the form of certain psychological syndromes.

The first is hyperactivity. Now there is an increase in the number of so-called “indigo children,” or children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). It is difficult for these children to stay focused on one thing for a long time, they are very restless and therefore disinhibited, hyperactive. Therefore, such children often have problems with academic performance due to restlessness and impatience, although at the same time they can be gifted in some separate areas of activity. There is a myth that is supported in the parental and partly pedagogical environment that they are supposedly special, gifted children, “people of the future”. But this, unfortunately, is not the case. The reality is that the “indigo children” have certain problems of a medical-psychological nature. The lack of emotional contacts in the family, primarily with the mother, and the excess of information that falls on the baby’s head from the first years of life, lead to a violation of the age-related development of the nervous system. That is why these children are overly excitable, impressionable, restless and less obedient.

And although over time these features of children's behavior are partially smoothed out, nevertheless, in the future, a society of former hyperactive children awaits us. A hyperactive society in which people will have a greater need for newness, a search for sensations, less patience and tolerance, a tendency to increased conflict. The thinking of such people is focused on processing information in short portions - this is the so-called “clip thinking” (although this term has not yet been fully established in the psychological environment, it is more likely to refer to the work of social philosophers, in particular A. Ashkerova) These people will not read War and Peace, they will read comics and short texts on the Internet, texts that fit on one screen. And they will digest the information in exactly the same way: faster, but in short portions. And this means a superficial approach to the analysis of information and decision-making.

The second feature of the “generation of the future" is a tendency toward autization. We are not talking about autism in the form of a disorder (although there are more and more autistic children), but about preclinical forms of autism, seen as an extreme manifestation of the evolutionary trend of humanity (theory D. Skripnikova) Autization, as a way of interacting with the world of people from childhood immersed in themselves and unable to communicate with others, acts as a protection from the problems of the modern way of life, as a way of fencing off from the world, in fact - a way of desocialization.

E-xecutive: What will have a decisive influence on the development and formation of generation Z?

M.S .:Internet, internet and internet again. It will replace other channels for obtaining information for them and, of course, will become more important than traditional media. Of course, the point here is not so much in the requests of the new generation, but in the laws of the progress of society and the development of Internet communications that we face today. There is even a special name for this process of global “Internetization” of life: the Internet revolution (and its leading direction today - the social media revolution). Moreover, while in a traditional society, communication with other people, “person-to-person” communication had a greater impact than the media on a person, then for the new generation, most likely, virtual communication will prevail over real one. A certain contradiction arises here: people tend to communicate less with each other (according to Baudrillard) - but at the same time communicate more and more. They communicate less and less in social reality - and more and more in virtual reality. This is the autism tendency described above: the modern person is gradually becoming less sociable in social terms, people are more and more isolated from each other, and the emerging social self-isolation (another contradiction, the desire to live in society - and to be free from society) is compensated by communication through the Internet. In fact, the new generation will largely live on the Internet. They will be torn there, running away from everyday reality, their interests, feelings and thoughts will be concentrated there.

Accordingly, when a person is distracted from the usual reality and lives in an artificial reality, for example, virtual, he breaks away from life, real soil, and it becomes easier to manipulate. A simple example. Why does the panic rumor epidemic periodically occur on the Internet? People are confronted with information that they cannot verify, therefore they trust it paradoxically in order to get rid of the uncertainty that arises (virtual realization of the Tertullian postulate: “I believe, because it’s absurd”). Legends about the “signals” of people who survived at the flooded hydroelectric power station, or about the terrible smog that caused everyone to die, the conspiracy theories of the origin of natural disasters that have come across our country are indicative of the fact that they quickly spread on the Internet and reached a large audience. Here is an example of the fact that with the internetization of communication, people become more susceptible to manipulation, because they perceive information uncritically and, moreover, in the role of users of social media, they become for each other sources of a panicky informational “infection”.

And this means that the new generation, which will spend even more time on the Internet than today's "old-timers of Runet," may turn out to be even more pliable for manipulation. Looking up from reality, people are forced to trust that they cannot verify anyway. And the main thrust of the manipulation of mass consciousness, which is increasing every year and will be especially relevant for the new generation, is that people begin to perceive life as a whole as entertainment, as a game. And in this game, the main thing is consumption - information, goods, services, entertainment. We will slowly but surely grow into the Western standards of the consumer society, obeying the “damned” Zinoviev and ridiculed Westernization trend by Zadornov. And from a psychological point of view, we can say that this will lead to even greater infantilization of the population. This trend is already noticeable now on adolescents and youths, who make up a separate consumer and socio-psychological group, described by marketers as scammers, or “adult children”. They are characterized by “Peter Pan syndrome,” or “eternal child”: they do not want to grow up and burden themselves with adult duties and responsibilities. Accordingly, they are determined to lead a consumer "children's" lifestyle. And the considered regularity has a definite background: it is convenient. Convenient to manipulate the new generation to an even greater extent. To manipulate is not for political purposes, they are irrelevant here, the new generation will be even more apolitical, most likely. And to manipulate precisely for economic purposes, so that these children consume and buy, consume again and buy again.

E-xecutive: How will generation Z differ from previous generations?

M.S .:  On the one hand, they become less sociable, more immersed in themselves and the virtual world and fantasies. In the language of psychology - more introverted. On the other hand, if we are talking about a child, then this is childish egocentrism, it is natural for a child to think exclusively about himself. In relation to an adult, this is rightly called individualism. Thus, the psychological diagnosis of the new generation is introverted individualism.

It should be emphasized that the farther, the more noticeable will be the socio-psychological polarization, the stratification of youth: the stratification is intellectual-cultural, and not the economic stratification (although the latter partially correlates with the former). When such a polarization occurs, then at one pole - a smaller part of adolescents who are interested in knowledge that is studying intensively, and knowledge for them are of high value. And at the other extreme - the majority of adolescents, for whom, on the contrary, culture, education, knowledge devalue, lose value. In their view, you can get a good job in life without possessing special knowledge. Settle in other ways - by patronage. In fact, infantile expectations lie here - for a child, parents should decide all the issues, for modern teens and youth, yesterday’s children, mom and dad should arrange them in adulthood and create comfortable conditions for them, provide everything necessary for this life.

And here we must add that when we talked about the increased manipulability of the minds and feelings of the population, the majority of the new generation subject to manipulative influence will become “slaves of public opinion”, or rather, slaves of the Internet. From the network they will draw samples of how to dress, how to behave, and how to live right. Because for them it means “to be like everyone else”, imitate the majority. And that smaller part of the generation that strives for individuality, originality, authenticity, self-realization, apparently, will be only a few percent. Here we will again be westernized, we will move towards the value-cultural distribution of society that has already developed in the West. Until now, we still somehow retained our originality, while (alas!) The remnants of the old Soviet education system (which was really good, unlike the modern Bologna system and modernized school standards) were outlived and wasted cultural stock. Now, with the entry into the independent life of the “Generation Z”, everything will finally change - obviously, not for the better.

Compared to previous generations, new youth will exacerbate the conflict of fathers and children, a worldview conflict. The generation gap is widening, and what children should perceive from their parents - life experience, etc., now they are mostly discarded. For them, the views of their parents ("ancestors", "Geront") are hopelessly outdated, which in itself is a big contradiction for society. For this means that young people will move away from their parents, neglect the opinions of their parents, but at the same time expect their parents to solve their problems. That is, the new generation will place moral responsibility on parents for their own problems - when they do not succeed, they resort to self-justification: it was not given to them by their parents, not arranged, not taught ...

The next important point is that the traditional family disappears. This trend is now clearly manifesting itself; it exists in society as a long-term trend. For the new generation, when they grow up, the psychological problems of creating a family will be even more acute. They have no personal experience of living in a complete family, a family with many children. This is also important. Why will new youth be more egocentric? These children grow up in families where there is an only child, automatically representing a center of attention. The child gets used to this state of affairs and believes that other people should treat him the same way as parents. With such an infantile egocentric conviction, he goes into an independent life.

New forms of family relationships are surrogate forms of marriage. This is not a civil marriage, but the so-called weekend family. People do not live together, but only spend the weekend. Or serial marriage, when both parties know in advance that this will not last long, a year and a half, a maximum of two. And in a sense, it turns out that informational progress in society affects families and children in a paradoxical way: there is regression. We are slipping into primitive forms of social organization, when the family as a cell of society was not yet there, as in the Stone Age.

The family circle, family meetings will also be a thing of the past, and in 15-20 years they will become virtual and people will communicate similarly to Skype. Already, there are young people who, living separately from their parents (but at their expense), communicate with “relatives” only by phone or through a network. And it is not a matter of individual families, unfortunately, this is a regularity, a way of life pushes young people to such behavior.

E-xecutive:  What values \u200b\u200bwill the representatives of generation Z have?

M.S .: We must start with the fact that the new generation is eroding the principles of life and life guidelines. This happens for several reasons. The first is a rapid change in life, as a result of which individual life principles, and even the lifestyle, as a whole become obsolete. The second is a worldview gap with parents, the life principles of elders become irrelevant for young people. And, finally, the third - redundancy of information, or information overload, which is an integral feature of the modern information society. It turns out that a person lives as if in a fog in which landmarks are not visible. Previously, the life credo established in society was somewhat simplistic-populist: each person had to do something in his life that was reduced to a standard set (to build a house, raise a son, plant a tree). Now such certainty, which would be reduced to simple formulas, is no more. It would seem that a person gains more freedom, but he does not know what to do with this freedom. What is the best way to live? How to be What to strive for? What to do, how to manage your life correctly?

And moving on to values \u200b\u200b... Of course, values \u200b\u200bare different, but they can be combined into four main groups: health (physical well-being and safety), family, social values \u200b\u200b(career, financial situation) and spiritual values \u200b\u200b(education, culture). Summing up, we can say that the health values \u200b\u200bfor the new generation will not go anywhere, maybe even will be even more relevant. People will be aware that in order to maintain health with a modern lifestyle, more effort needs to be made, and consumption in this area will increase. But the second group of values \u200b\u200b- family - in the eyes of the new generation, alas, is doomed to a gradual devaluation. The shift of attention will occur towards social values \u200b\u200b- career and wealth. But recalling hyperactivity, increased conflict, and problems with emotions, we can expect that this society will be prone to more intense competition between people with each other, not corporate, but personal. The new generation will even more than its predecessors strive to push its elbows around to achieve personal goals. And the fourth group of values \u200b\u200b- spiritual - will again depreciate for a significant mass of young people. A group of highly cultured people for whom education, spirituality, and personal development have high priority will, unfortunately, be reduced.

E-xecutive: How will Generation Z prove itself at work? In a relationship with superiors and colleagues?

M.S .:The main socio-psychological trend for the new generation is infantilization. It manifests itself in the fact that adults retain their childhood traits and, accordingly, in "adult" situations they behave like children, without realizing it. Accordingly, as workers, they will be less responsible, less executive, they are not ready to admit their guilt for disruptions and inadequate performance of any work. But at the same time, as children, they will constantly expect from others and from the leader an unconditional positive assessment of everything that they do at work. Imagine: a child receives praise from parents for their crafts and naive children's drawings, for verses read at a kindergarten matinee - this is natural. But when a person grows up, becomes, for example, an office employee, and inside he remains the same child, he expects the same unconditionally accepting positive assessment for his “works”, for his work, even if he does it poorly, inadequately. Here we must add the childish egocentrism and the consumer attitude to life, characteristic of the infantile generation. Already, young employees, especially metropolitan "cadres", often claim to receive wages not by the result of their activities, not by the proper performance of functional duties, but simply by the very fact of being at the workplace, "sitting out" the prescribed number of hours ( partly filled by communication on the Internet). However, according to popular wisdom, those who want to work are instructed by life, and those who do not want are forced. The same thing happens with “adult children”: life is for them the best teacher.

E-xecutive: And how will the representatives of the Tin sub-generation behave in the office?

M.S .: As we said, they are characterized by increased conflict, rigidity, uncompromisingness, the desire to "go ahead" in order to protect their interests, ignoring the interests of others, literally over their heads. We can say that this generation will be more psychologically competitive in tomorrow's office wars, they will have an advantage over the more conformal, less conflicting representatives of older age groups. But the desire to work in good faith, the pursuit of competence is hardly worth expecting from this generation, because increased demands on others (the desire to “take”) from “new” young people are often combined with undemanding oneself (and an unwillingness to “give”). And if their hidden aggressiveness, desire for dominance is mistaken for leadership qualities, if the ideal of the leader is a person who doesn’t “make a joke” with his subordinates, is used to “pushing” them and can easily, without restraining himself from etiquette, hit his fist on the table and yelling at employees, then the "children of the 90s" ideally fit into such a stereotype of leadership. If leadership really means the ability to direct a large group of people to achieve a common goal, uniting them, motivating them, finding an approach to each and creating a cohesive team from them, then it will be more difficult for the “new young” to achieve this than their older colleagues.

E-xecutive: From the foregoing, we can conclude that the value of working professions will fall to zero?

M.S .: Quite possible. However, as well as other "performing" professions related to hard (not only physically) work, stereotyped actions, monotony, exhausting pace. After all, all these factors become a source of professional psycho-emotional stress. And if you relate to life and work infantile, in a childish way - like to a game, then in no case should you strain! After all, what is a game? When something needs to be done “make-believe”, imitate employment and violent activity. And those who want to "plow", "work hard", to exert themselves seriously, doing not only physical labor, are becoming less and less. Give virtual work with a virtual result! The Internet is the most popular place to work in the future for the new generation. Industry, on the other hand, is quite stressful work: even if a significant part of the work is performed by computer-controlled machines, automated systems, the “human factor” still has a busy rhythm, a busy schedule, commitment, responsibility, etc. And the infantile attitude to work, which is characteristic of the new generation, comes down to a simple principle: strain less, generally do less and get more for it. This is not compatible with either workers or engineering professions. And the prestige of both those and others in society has long fallen.

Alexandra Sychev

Today everyone is discussing generations of the future -YZ andA, while the most active economically are people of generationX. They speak and write little about them, but they are the ones who shape the future of the world economy and politics. About who these people are generations X, and what is their difference from representatives of other generations, read in our article.

The most economically active today are representatives of the so-called generationsX. It has largely influenced the formation of the modern business environment and has made an invaluable contribution to the development of the global economy. Representatives of generation X have a unique value system that allows them to achieve high results in all areas of life.

Generation X Representative Value System

This system is a combination of behavioral and social attitudes, developed under the influence of many factors. The system has a direct impact on a person’s opinion regarding certain phenomena and things that he encounters throughout his life. It is she who is the main guideline in the process of making important decisions. A change in the value system throughout life is possible, but is extremely rare.

Due to the huge diversity of values, it is customary to divide into several main categories. Most often, researchers identify 2 types of values :

Value No. 1

Spiritual

This category is one of the fundamental. This includes all attitudes and ideals, under the influence of which the individual's ideas about good, justice, beauty, good, evil and so on are formed. It is on a set of spiritual values \u200b\u200bthat the ideas of the necessary and the necessary, preferences and desires, aspirations and drives, depend;

Value No. 2

Material

Material values \u200b\u200binclude consumer values \u200b\u200bexpressed in material form: basic necessities, private property, accessibility of goods and services.

The final set of values \u200b\u200bof each person is individual and unique. It is quite difficult to take into account each element of this system. However, there are certain combinations of values \u200b\u200b(gender, family, national, professional) that are inherent in representatives of certain “generations”.

Theory of Generations

For the first time, several scientists began talking about this theory in the first half of the 90s. According to this theory, approximately every 20 years, a new generation of people is born whose value system is fundamentally different from the value system of their parents, grandparents. The formation of the value system of a representative of each new generation actually ends by 11-15 years, after which it is only supplemented and strengthened. Already at this age you can notice the first differences: attitude to other people, money, material and spiritual goods, style of consumption and behavior in general.

The calculus and description of “generations” begins at the end of the 19th century. Each generation has its own unique values, which were formed under the influence of many factors. The activities of representatives of each generation provoked the creation of new conditions, which, in turn, began to influence the formation of the value system of the next generation.

The Lost Generation (1890 - 1900)

The first generation, which is mentioned in the mentioned theory, are people born in 1890-1900. This era is characterized by social inequality, stratification of society, disappointment in civilization, the decline of culture and decadence. Representatives of the “lost generation” grew and formed under the conditions of despotism and monarchism, and the most important event of that era was the unprecedented global military conflict - the First World War and the collapse of the imperialist state. As a response, representatives of the generation took an active part in revolutionary events, the formation of modern states, the creation of new ideas, the development of science and a new culture.

Winners (The Greatest) (1901 - 1925)

According to different versions, representatives of this generation were born from 1901 to 1925. These people grew up in an era of global change in the social and political world order. Bold ideas, new areas of science and technology, the strengthening of totalitarian and authoritarian societies - all this influenced the value system of representatives of the “generation of winners”. People born at this time were participants or witnesses of the Second World War, the creation of the UN, the post-war restoration of the world order.

Silent (1925 - 1945)

People born on the eve and during the Second World War (1925-1945) are called the “silent generation”. They had to grow and live in the post-war period, to restore the destroyed economy and industry. The period of their activity accounts for the beginning of the Cold War, the slow but steady growth of the economy, the gradual improvement of living conditions and the quality of life, the absence of global shocks, and the strengthening of power structures. However, the childhood of these people was extremely difficult, which could not but leave an imprint on their whole lives.

Baby Boom (I) (1946 - 1964)

Representatives of the silent generation and the “winners” gave birth to a huge number of children, as a result of which there was a population explosion (1946-1964). The baby boom era marks the beginning of the sexual revolution, the heyday of rock music and hippie culture. The authoritarian rulers no longer satisfied society, which often caused unrest and local conflicts. Demonstrations, rallies, public appearances and protests became typical of this era.

At the same time, protest moods and narcissism began to prevail. People of the “generation of I” preferred self-realization, abandoning generally accepted social responsibility. This generation was one of the first to start saying that the main thing in life is getting pleasure and changing the world. People from the baby boom generation have actively promoted the ideas of equality, non-violence, democracy and tolerance.

Generation X (1965 - 1979) (according to some researchers - until 1982)

The socially active and freedom-loving baby boomers were replaced by representatives of generation X, born from 1965 to 1979 (according to some researchers - to 1982). In some cases, all children who were born before the 1990s and even 2000s are included here, however, this is not true.

The formation of the X-system of values \u200b\u200bwas influenced by the war in Afghanistan, the Chechen war, the stagnation and fall of socialist regimes, the end of the Cold War, the opening of borders, freedom of movement, globalization, the growth of the number of emigrants, the fall and subsequent rapid economic growth.

Representatives of the unknowns became even more independent from official authorities. However, in contrast to the worldview of baby boomers, the attempts to change the world have been replaced by the absolute or partial indifference of the X to what is happening in the political arena. Sexual relationships outside of marriage have become the norm, as well as a lack of religiosity and patriotism. Representatives of generation X began to get divorced more often, however family values \u200b\u200bstill play one of the primary roles for them.

These people are not used to stability. Before their eyes, the entire system of the world was changing radically, and they were used to the difficulties associated with these changes. They are alien to infantilism and decadence, they are active, quick-witted, they can be called "punchy." They rely only on themselves, always have a plan "B", are not lost in difficulties and are ready for any difficult situations.

"X" changed the world beyond recognition. These people are characterized by high efficiency and productivity, they are persistent and zealous. For “people X” an important role is played by a career, educational level, material wealth. They strive to be successful, but often do not look for new ways, but use long-proven routes.

Aigun Kurbanova,
  HR Director, Relief

People after 45 are professional and executive, without unnecessary ambition. Explain this to company management.

Sometimes employers are frightened that subordinates will be older than the head. But this is not scary! The main thing is to entrust age-appropriate employees with suitable work that is not associated with high rates and constant stress. And such work at the enterprise is always enough. For example, in our company there are many employees who are 50 years old this year. Just a year of anniversaries. And all these specialists work productively. Therefore, I gladly take to my department people over 45 years old. They are more executive, reliable, professional, and at the same time they do not have unnecessary ambitions (like a university graduate who does not know how, but wants a lot). I can rely on such an employee, as I am sure that everything will be done 100%. After all, he has both responsibility for the result and unwillingness to lose his job. This is what HR directors should explain to top managers of the company.

Millennials (Y, YaYaYa) (beginning of the 80s - end of the 90s)

Most economic models and incentive systems were created specifically for the X. Thanks to this, the HR director can quickly increase productivity, using the “standard” set of motivators, both tangible and intangible.

"X" used to achieve everything themselves. Career and life in general for them is a kind of turn-based strategy. First you need to finish school, then go to college or university, get a profession and "crusts". After that, a newly-made specialist arrives at the enterprise and starts from the bottom - works as a linear or junior office staff with the prospect of a slow but steady career growth. Management or expert positions "X" reached (and still are) at the age of 30-40 years.

Employee Motivation X

In most cases, rapid career growth is not possible for them. Representatives of the Xs are trying to “sell themselves” more profitably, but at the same time they understand that in order to implement such a plan it is necessary to comply with the declared price. Empty ambitions are a rarity for them, they know their worth well and require adequate remuneration for their work.

Material motivation plays a huge role in stimulating generation X workers. Promotion along the career ladder, obtaining new powers or responsibilities, solving assigned tasks, fulfilling the production plan - all this should be noted not only in the form of praise or recognition of merit by the management, but also with quite tangible material rewards. The increase or bonus per se may even be insignificant, but it must be.

The most effective way of non-material motivation for X employees is the opportunity to acquire new knowledge and advanced training. Courses, seminars, business trips, webinars - all this will be appreciated by representatives of generation X.

Recognition of merit is no less important - public awards, the provision of a personal workplace, personal benefits, and so on. An excellent way to recognize the merits of such an employee is to appoint him as a mentor, who should train newcomers in the team. With this technique, the personnel service can decide immediately 3 problems:

Problem number 1

Increase mentor motivation

By appointing an employee as a “teacher," management demonstrates its loyalty and trust, which in turn encourages the mentor to do his own work better;

Problem number 2

Reduce beginner adaptation time

It will be easier for a new employee to join the team and get involved in work processes if an experienced employee is engaged in adaptation and training, and not a representative of the personnel service;

Problem number 3

Reduce staffing burden

How to use the human resources of the "X"

The “Unknown Generation” was formed at the dawn of the era of media communications, when the Internet and other types of mobile communications were rather rare than normal. For this reason, for many "Xs", living communication and real human relationships are of fundamental value. They are not so dependent on social networks and the Internet as a whole, therefore their picture of the world is much more realistic than that of representatives of Y and Z.

Characteristics of people from generation X

• have rich life experience,
• have a long experience,
• have certain merits,
• have a good education,
• diversified
• tactful
• sociable.

These people are most suitable for performing stable and responsible work, requiring perseverance and a thorough approach.

"X" is attentive to people and details, so they make excellent managers of all levels. The sequence and predictability of actions allows you to appoint them as managers of serious projects or developing business areas.

Thanks to business acumen and the ability to build working relationships, Xs can be safely sent for negotiations to other companies. They can be entrusted with the implementation of serious projects with pre-planned performance.

Shortcomings of workers X

Unlike people Y (YaYaYa), whose representatives are very ambitious, the "X" can and will work hard. It was this generation that gave rise to the term "workaholism" - dependence on work. An unfulfilled project, failures at work, failure to meet deadlines - all this is perceived by them very seriously and painfully.

Excessive workloads and responsibility provoke stressful situations, from which the moral and physical health of these individuals suffers. For this reason, Xs are more prone to nervous breakdowns, moral exhaustion, and depression. Damage to physical health is manifested in the form of headaches, decreased sexual activity, heart attacks, early heart attacks and strokes.

Such consequences can only be avoided by regularly alternating “work” and “rest” modes, creating comfortable working conditions and a favorable atmosphere in the team.

Check yourself

What 2 main types of values \u200b\u200bare usually distinguished:

• gender and family;
• professional and national;
• spiritual and material.

What is the name of the generation born from 1946 to 1964?

• lost
• baby boom;
• millennials.

Which generation is most active in the economy at the moment?

• Baby boom;

What is the hallmark of generation X?

• high efficiency;
• unwillingness to grow up;
• protest spirit, active participation in political and public life.

The main disadvantage of generation X is:

• inflated ambitions;
• exposure to stress;
• dependence on modern technology.

To be continued. See No. 22, 23/2005, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10/2006

Question and answer dictionary

(Grades 6–11)

What set of chromosomes is contained in spores, gametes, bryophytes zygote?

Answer.In spores and gametes, there is a haploid set of chromosomes, in the zygote and sporophyte developing from it, it is diploid.

What generation prevails in the bryophytes in the development cycle?

Answer.Gametophyte prevails, or the sexual generation, represented by a leaf-stem plant. A sporophyte cannot exist autonomously.

MUTAGENESIS - the occurrence of mutations under the influence of physical factors or chemicals - mutagens.

What physical factors can cause mutations?

Answer.High-frequency radiation - radiation, x-ray and ultraviolet radiation.

Why use artificial mutagenesis in breeding?

Answer.In breeding, artificial mutagenesis is used to obtain mutants of plants, animals, microorganisms, from which the desired forms with the necessary properties are selected for further breeding.

MUTATIONS (from lat. mutatio- change) - sudden, natural or artificially induced, inherited changes in the genetic material, leading to a change in certain signs of the body.

Which of the scientists is considered the founder of the doctrine of mutations?

Answer:Hugo De Frieze (1901).

What types of mutations are known to you?

Answer:Somatic - do not affect germ cells and are inherited only during vegetative propagation and generative - occur in germ cells and are passed on to next generations. Gene - mutations of individual genes, chromosomal - occur during the rearrangement of chromosomes, their breaks and genomic - a change in the number of chromosomes in cells.

What is the role of mutations in the evolution of the organic world?

Answer:Mutations cause a variety of sign changes. Phenotypically manifested mutations are exposed to natural selection. Those of them that turn out to be the most adaptive in specific environmental conditions are preserved, harmful ones are eliminated by selection.

MUSCLES, MUSCLES - organs of the body of animals and humans, consisting of muscle tissue that can contract under the influence of nerve impulses.

What types of muscles are distinguished in the human body?

Answer.  Skeletal, or striated, muscles, smooth muscles, and heart muscle.

How is muscle activity regulated?

Answer.Muscle contractions are regulated and controlled by the nervous system. Each muscle is equipped with the ends of sensory and motor neurons that perceive and transmit excitement.

Why are normal muscle movements coordinated, and with some pathologies the coordination of movements is disturbed?

Answer.Muscle contractions of skeletal muscle are controlled by the cerebral cortex. The coordination of movements is disturbed by temporary or permanent inhibition of the functions of the cerebral cortex.

What chemicals provide muscle contraction?

Answer.First of all, these are actin and myosin proteins - the main structural components of muscles.

Why does muscle fatigue fade away?

Answer.Fatigue occurs when there is a lack of ATP energy, therefore, when replenishing energy reserves, fatigue passes.

N

AUTOMOTIVE PLANTS - autotrophic plants capable of capturing and partially digesting insects with the help of enzymes and organic acids. Thus, they make up for the lack of nitrogen.

Name representatives of insectivorous plants.

Answer. Carnivorous plants include Venus flytrap, Nepentes, Pemphigus, etc. A total of about 500 species, distributed mainly in warm regions of the Earth.

What insect devices do insectivorous plants have?

Answer. It can be bag-shaped organs in the form of a jug, as in Nepentes; the leaves of some plants are covered with sticky hairs. In the sundew, the leaves slam when insects adhere to them.

INSECTS - a class (according to some modern classifications, a superclass) of animals of the Arthropod type.

What are the main signs of insects that provided them with flowering and spread on Earth.

Answer. Chitinous integuments of the body, providing protection, thermal insulation, support; the ability to fly associated with the development of wings; a variety of oral devices; development with metamorphosis, allowing you to adapt to different habitats; fitness for pollination of flowering plants and nutrition of their juices; tracheal breathing; care for offspring of public insects.

What is the significance of insects in nature and their practical significance for humans?

Answer.  Insects, by virtue of their abundance (about 1 million species are known, the true number is probably 1.5–2 million species) is a powerful biological environmental factor. The benefits of insects are associated with their functions as pollinators of plants, participation in soil formation. Insects loosen the soil and enrich it with humus. Insects perform sanitary functions, destroying rotting plant debris, animal corpses, their excretion. Insects and their larvae feed many vertebrates.
   The harmful effect of insects is primarily associated with the damage they cause to plants, especially during mass reproduction. Many insects are carriers of pathogens of dangerous diseases, for example, a mosquito, tsetse fly, mosquitoes, fleas, bugs.

INHERITANCE - transfer of genetic information from one generation of organisms to another.

What processes govern the patterns of inheritance?

Answer. These patterns depend on the features of doubling, combining, and distributing genetic material.

What types of inheritance are found in the organic world?

Answer. Depending on the location of DNA in the cell, nuclear and cytoplasmic inheritance are distinguished. There are various options for inheriting traits: coupled, fully coupled to the floor, not fully coupled to the floor, and many other options.

HEREDITY - the property of organisms to transmit their characteristics and functions to future generations.

What are heredity factors?

Answer. Material carriers of heredity are genes - sections of DNA or RNA molecules.

What is cytoplasmic heredity?

Answer. This is a heredity associated with the nucleic acids of cellular organelles - mitochondria and plastids.

What does the concept of mitochondrial heredity mean?

Answer. This heredity is associated with mitochondrial DNA. Mitochondria of eukaryotic cells are capable of reproduction, and in higher organisms, signs due to mitochondrial heredity are transmitted only through the female line. This is because when the cytoplasm is fertilized, the sperm does not penetrate the egg, and therefore, male mitochondria do not penetrate.

NATIONAL PARKS - protected natural territories (water areas) where natural complexes of special ecological, historical and aesthetic value have been preserved.

NEURON (from Greek neuron- vein, nerve) - a nerve cell, a neurocyte, the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system, which has specific manifestations of excitability.

What departments does a neuron consist of?

Answer.  A neuron consists of a body, an axon, and one or more dendrites.

What are the main types of neurons in the body?

Answer.  Neurons are distinguished by function and structure. By function, neurons are divided into sensory, motor, and intercalary (associative). The structure is unipolar (with one axon), bipolar (there is an axon and dendrite) and multipolar (axon and several dendrites). Excitatory and inhibitory neurons are distinguished by the nature of the effect.

What forms a system of sensory, intercalary, and motor neurons?

Answer.  This system forms a reflex arc of an unconditioned reflex.

What is the place of contact of two neurons.

Answer.  Synapse. In it, the transmission of excitation from a neuron to a neuron occurs through a mediator.

NERVOUS SYSTEM - a set of individual neurons and other structures of the nervous tissue of animals and humans, combining the activity of all organs and systems of the body in its constant interaction with the external environment.

What underlies the activity of the nervous system (NS)?

Answer. At the heart of the activities of the National Assembly is a reflex. Any reaction of the body is associated with conducting excitation along reflex arcs and inhibition of this process.

How did the NS complicate during evolution?

Answer. With the development and complication of organisms, NS developed in the direction of improving the forebrain and especially its large hemispheres. From a diffuse-type NS (in intestinal cavities), a transition was first made to diffuse-nodular and nodular (flat and annelid worms, insects), and then to a centralized NS, controlled by the brain.

What do somatic NS and autonomic NS control?

Answer. Somatic NS controls the activity of skeletal muscles. Vegetative NS regulates the work of internal organs.

What departments is the autonomic NS divided into and how do these departments function?

Answer. Autonomic NS is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic departments. They have the opposite effect on internal organs. If the sympathetic system speeds up the work of the heart, then the parasympathetic slows down its work.

NOOSPHERE - a new state of the biosphere, in which intelligent human activity becomes the main, determining, factor in its development.

Which of the scientists introduced the concept of "noosphere"?

Answer. P. Teilhard de Chardin and E. Leroy. They associated this concept with the emergence and development of mankind. They understood the noosphere as "the thinking shell of the Earth."

What is the meaning of V.I. Vernadsky?

Answer. Vernadsky believed that humanity has a decisive influence on the biosphere. Developing and improving science, culture, technology, man affects all shells of the biosphere, changing them. Vernadsky asserted the need for rational human activity in interaction with nature, and not against it.

REACTION NORM - the limits of modification variability determined by the individual's genotype.

Is the statement correct that the attribute is inherited?

Answer. In fact, genes are inherited. Their combination determines the phenotype of the body and the possibility of manifestation of changes.

What do the concepts “broad reaction rate” and “narrow reaction rate” mean?

Answer. The concept of “broad reaction rate” means that the degree of expression of a characteristic can vary within a fairly wide range. For example, the growth of a particular person, depending on nutritional conditions, lifestyle, sports, can fluctuate within a few centimeters. “Narrow reaction rate” means that this trait has a small range of variability.

NUCLEIC ACIDS - polynucleotides, phosphorus-containing biopolymers that are universally distributed in wildlife (see DNA).

What types of nucleic acids (NKs) are known to you?

Answer. There are two types of nucleic acids: DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid and RNA - ribonucleic acid.

How are nucleotides in NK molecules connected?

Answer. The nucleotides in the NK molecule are linearly linked by ether bonds between the phosphoric acid residue of one nucleotide and the carbohydrate residue of the next nucleotide.

What are the sizes of a DNA molecule?

Answer. The length of various DNA reaches several hundred microns, the width of the molecule is 2 nm, the length of one turn is 3.4 nm.

What is the difference between DNA and RNA?

Answer. RNA is a single-chain molecule; instead of deoxyribose and thymine, it contains ribose and uracil.

NUCLEOTIDES - monomers of DNA and RNA molecules consisting of a nitrogenous base, five-carbon sugar and a phosphoric acid residue.

What types of nucleotides are found in DNA and RNA?

Answer. DNA contains adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine, while RNA contains the same nucleotides, but uracil instead of thymine.

How can one explain the complementarity of nucleotides?

Answer. The distance between the carbohydrate components of two paired nucleotides is strictly fixed (1.1 nm). Therefore, the purine base can combine with pyrimidine; in addition, the geometry of the base molecules is such that hydrogen bonds can only form between purines and pyrimidines. There are 2 bonds between adenine and thymine, 3 bonds between guanine and cytosine.

If one DNA strand is represented by AAT THC TAT nucleotides, then what will the second strand look like?

Answer. TTA ATsG ATA.

ABOUT

EXCHANGE OF SUBSTANCES - metabolism, a set of chemical transformations occurring in living organisms that ensure their growth, vital activity, reproduction, constant contact and exchange of matter and energy with the environment.

What types of metabolism in the body do you know?

Answer. Distinguish between plastic exchange (assimilation) and energy exchange (dissimilation). Plastic metabolism is a synthesis of organic substances in the body that goes with the absorption of energy. Energy exchange - the decomposition of organic compounds to final products, which occurs with the release of energy.

What substances are synthesized in the body?

Answer. In the plant body, carbohydrates are synthesized in the process of photosynthesis, proteins, fats, nucleic acids. In other organisms, the same substances are synthesized, but photosynthesis does not occur.

What is the biological meaning of plastic metabolism?

Answer. In the course of plastic metabolism from complex substances that are not similar in composition to complex substances of the body, complex substances characteristic of this organism are synthesized. This is called assimilation, or assimilation.

What is the biological meaning of energy metabolism?

Answer. The meaning of energy metabolism is the extraction and accumulation of energy from substances coming from outside. The extracted energy is accumulated in the form of ATP during glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation. Then it is used for all vital processes (see Energy Exchange).

SENSITIVITY BODIES - structures that perceive chemical stimuli present in the environment. Formed by the olfactory epithelium containing receptor cells. The severity of smell depends on the number of receptors. In shepherd dogs there are about 200 million, in humans - 10 million.

OVULATION (from ovum  - egg) - exit of mature eggs from the ovary into the body cavity.

How does ovulation occur in humans?

Answer. When follicles rupture, a mature egg leaves the uterine (fallopian) tube, then advances to the uterus within 7 days.

How is the frequency of ovulation regulated?

Answer. Neurohumoral way involving the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. May occur under the influence of environmental signals, for example, changes in daylight hours, temperature, etc.

SINGLE PLANTS - a class of flowering plants.

Give examples of monocotyledonous plants.

Answer. The monocotyledonous families include cereals, lily, aronnikovye (aroid). The main representatives are cereals, sedges, tulips, lilies, onions, garlic, palm trees.

What are the main features of monocotyledonous plants?

Answer. In monocotyledons, as a rule, the fibrous root system, one cotyledon in the seed, arcuate or parallel venation of leaves, cambium is absent, the number of flower parts is a multiple of three.

SINGLE-HOUSED PLANTS - plants in which same-sex flowers - male (staminate) and female (pistillate) - or other male and female genital organs (in non-flowering plants) are on the same plant. Birch, hazel, oak, pine, spruce, corn, many mosses.

What pollination method is typical for monoecious angiosperms and gymnosperms?

Answer. These are wind-pollinated plants.

What adaptations for pollination can such plants possess?

Answer. The flowers of angiosperms are collected in inflorescences, bloom often before the leaves appear, and are located openly. Under these conditions, pollination is more effective. In gymnosperms, cones are open, which provides access to pollen.

PERENNIAL PLANTS - plants that complete their development cycle in one year.

BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION - a set of oxidation reactions of organic substances that occur in living cells.

What is the main result of biological oxidation?

Answer. Providing the body with energy.

What reactions underlie oxidation?

Answer.  Donor-acceptor redox reactions associated with the transfer of hydrogen or electron atoms from a donor to an acceptor. Oxygen serves as such an acceptor in plants, animals, and certain microorganisms. Donors can be both organic and inorganic substances.

Biological oxidation is multistage. How can this be explained?

Answer. Complex organic compounds - proteins, fats, carbohydrates - contain a fairly large supply of energy in their chemical bonds. It is released gradually in the process of stepwise oxidation. If this energy was released immediately, in the course of one reaction, then the cells would burn.

How and where is the liberated energy stored?

Answer. Energy storage occurs in mitochondria in the form of ATP.

SUNNY FLOWERS - a collection of leaf covers of a flower surrounding stamens and carpels.

What perianth is called simple?

Answer. If the perianth consists of identical leaves in color and shape (lily of the valley, tulip), then it is called simple.

What perianth is called double?

Answer. Consisting of a cup and corolla (clove, rose, bell).

ONTOGENESIS (from Greek ontos  - existing and ... genesis) - the individual development of an individual, the entire set of its transformations from generation (division of a unicellular organism or fertilization of an egg) to the end of life (death or new division of an individual).

To be continued

Consider plant life cycles in figures 97-99. Recall from a textbook in Grade 6 how these plants reproduce. What is the essence of double fertilization in angiosperms (flowering) plants?

In plants, the formation of germ cells and individual development proceed differently than in animals. In the plant kingdom, there is an alternation in the life cycle of sexual and asexual generations. In addition, meiosis in plants does not occur with the formation of germ cells, but with the maturation of spores.

Alternation of generations in plants.  Sporophyte (from the Greek spore - seed and phyton - plant) is an asexual generation of plants with a double set of chromosomes. On sporophyte in the process of meiosis, spores form. A gametophyte develops from spores (from the Greek gametes - husband and phyton - plant) - the sexual generation with a single set. Gametes are formed on it in mitosis. After fertilization, a sporophyte forms again from the zygote. The process is then repeated. Depending on the type of plant, an adult organism may be a gametophyte or sporophyte (Fig. 96).

Fig. 96. Alternation of asexual (sporophyte) and sexual (gametophthous) generations in the life cycle of plants

In green algae in the life cycle, the sexual generation - the gametophyte predominates (Fig. 97). It reproduces asexually and sexually. In a certain period, gametes develop on the gametophyte, different or identical in size. After the fusion of gametes, a zygote is formed, from which spores form as a result of meiosis. They give rise to new gametophytes. In the life cycle of green algae, sporophyte is represented by only one cell - the zygote.

Fig. 97. Life cycle of green algae (ulotrix)

In moss, gametophyte also prevails in the cycle (Fig. 98). It develops when spores germinate. This is a leafy plant, on the shoots of which male and female organs of sexual reproduction are formed. Sporophyte - a thin leg with a box - develops on the gametophyte and is not capable of independent existence.

  Fig. 98. Life cycle of green moss cuckoo flax

In sporangia, spores form as a result of meiosis. Spores after ripening spill out and germinate in a humid environment, giving rise to a branching thread (pregrowth). Gametophytes develop on it from the kidneys.

In ferns, crowns and horsetails, on the contrary, sporophyte prevails in the life cycle (Fig. 99). On it in special organs - sporangia as a result of meiosis, spores are formed. Spores after ripening spill out and germinate. When germinating from a spore, a sexual generation develops - a gametophyte, which is a small seedling. In the process of mitosis, male and female gametes are formed on it.

Fig. 99. The life cycle of the male thyroid fern

In the presence of water, fertilization occurs and a zygote forms. An embryo develops from it, and then a young plant - sporophyte.

Reproduction and development of seed plants.  In seed plants, reproduction occurs by seed. In the life cycle, sporophyte predominates, and the gametophyte is greatly reduced in size (reduced), develops on the sporophyte and is represented by only a few cells. We will consider the development of seed plants using the example of the life cycle of angiosperms or flowering plants.

Fig. 100. Pine cone - an organ of family reproduction of gymnosperms

An adult plant is a sporophyte, has a double set of chromosomes. Sporophyte develops from a seed. The reproductive organ is a flower (Fig. 101). The female organ — the pestle and the male organ — the stamens, are formed in the flower. In the ovary of the pestle in the ovules, 4 spores form as a result of meiosis. The division occurs unevenly - one large spore and three small ones are formed. Three small spores die off, and one large one develops into a female gametophyte. The spore is divided three times by mitosis and an eight-nucleus embryo sac is formed: 8 nuclei in which are distributed as follows. Closer to the pollen feeder is a large nucleus - the egg, next to two smaller kernels - the accompanying ones. At the opposite pole of the bag are three nuclei, and in the center are two central nuclei. All nuclei have a single set of chromosomes (n). Thus, female gametophyte in angiosperms is represented by an eight-nucleus embryo sac.

Fig. 101. Organs of seed propagation of flowering plants: 1 - flower; 2 - fetus

In pollen bags of stamens from sporangia cells, as a result of meiosis, 4 small spores are formed. All disputes develop and give rise to male gametophytes. Each spore is divided by mitosis and forms a vegetative and generative cell. The vegetative and generative cells are covered with a double membrane - pollen grains are formed. Thus, male gametophyte in angiosperms is represented by two cells with a shell - pollen grain.

When pollen grains get on the stigma of a flower’s pistil, the vegetative cell begins to germinate, forming a pollen tube. Due to the flow of the cytoplasm of the pollen tube, the generative cell advances towards the pollen path of the embryo sac (Fig. 102). In this case, the nucleus of the generative cell is divided by mitosis and two sperm are formed - immobile male gametes. They penetrate into the embryo sac through the dust pollen. One sperm (n) merges with the egg (n), which forms a zygote (2n). A seed embryo develops from the zygote. The second sperm (n) merges with the two nuclei of the central cell (2n), resulting in the formation of the endosperm of the seed, which stores nutrients. The nuclei of endosperm cells in angiosperms have a triple set of chromosomes (3n).

Fig. 102. Life cycle and double fertilization in flowering plants: 1 - fusion of sperm with the central cell; 2 - fusion of sperm with the egg; 3 - seed peel; 4 - embryo (2n); 5 - endosperm (3n)

The process of fusion of sperm with the egg and central cell is called double fertilization. It was discovered in 1898 by the Russian scientist Sergei Gavrilovich Navashin (Fig. 103). As a result of double fertilization, the seed is formed from the ovule of the flower, and the seed peel is formed from the integument of the ovum. Around the seed from the ovary or other parts of the flower, the walls of the fetus develop. When opening or destroying the wall of the fetus, the seed is outside. Under certain conditions, it sprouts, a new plant - sporophyte develops from the embryo of the seed.

Fig. 103. Sergey Gavrilovich Navashin (1857 - 1930)

So, in plants from lower to higher, there is a gradual increase in the sporophyte's lifespan. Starting with fern-like, sporophyte prevails in the life cycle, and the gametophyte gradually reduces to one or more cells.

Material Exercises

1. What is the peculiarity of the individual development of plants compared with animals?
2. How does the alternation of generations in plants?
3. What generation predominates in the life cycle of algae, moss, fern-like and seed plants?
4. How does the female and male gametophyte develop in angiosperms, or flowering plants?
5. Why is fertilization in angiosperms or flowering plants called double?
6. How does gametophyte change from lower to higher plants? Explain the benefits this gives the plant body.