The origin and initial stages of the development of life on Earth. Ι option.
- Living is different from non-living
And - the composition of inorganic compounds
B - the presence of catalysts
B - the interaction of molecules with each other
G - metabolic processes, ensuring the constancy of structural
Functional organization system
2. The first living organisms on our planet were:
A - anaerobic heterotrophs
B - aerobic heterotrophs
B - autotrophs
G - symbionts
3. The hypothesis is
A - a logical generalization of experience
B - scientifically set experience
B - Scientific Assumption
G - the study of changes in nature
4. The biological system is called
A - organs of a living organism
B - several adjacent organs
B - the union of homogeneous cells
G - biological objects of varying degrees of complexity, having several
Organization levels
5. Chemical evolution on ancient Earth has ended
A - abiogenic synthesis of biological monomers
B - the formation of polypeptides
B - synthesis of biopolymers
G - randomly arising combination of proteins and nucleic acids
6. The experiments of L. Pasteur proved the possibility
A - spontaneous generation of life
B - the emergence of living from living
B - introducing the “seeds of life”
G - biochemical evolution
7. For biological evolution on Earth, the decisive role was played by the cosmic, planetary and chemical conditions that ensured the presence of water:
A - in a gaseous state
B - in a solid state
B - in a liquid state
G - in the form of an aqueous "shirt" surrounding organic molecules
8. The sexual process in the history of the Earth was first possessed by:
A - protobionts
B - aerobic bacteria
B - eukaryotes
G - prokaryotes
9. The first eukaryotes that gave rise to animals received the energy necessary for life
A - forming pyrophosphate
B - having absorbed aerobic bacteria
B - “making an alliance” with primary photosynthetics
G - using ultraviolet radiation
10. Coacervat is
A - fluid bubbles surrounded by protein films
B - phase-isolated system interacting with the external environment as
Open system
B - high molecular weight organic compound
G - molecules surrounded by an aqueous shell
The origin and initial stages of life on Earth. Ι Ι option
- According to the theory of spontaneous nucleation, life:
A - arose repeatedly from inanimate matter
B - brought to our planet from outside
B - was created by a supernatural being at a certain time
G - arose as a result of processes subject to physical and chemical laws
2 .Finally in 1861, he experimentally proved the impossibility of the appearance of living things from nonliving
(abiogenesis) on Earth:
A - F. Redi in - A. Levenguk
B - L. Pasteur Mr. - L. Spallanzani
3 . For the first time in 1924, suggested the abiogenic origin of organic
Substances on Earth and formulated the coacervate hypothesis:
A - J. Haldane in - S. Miller
B - A. Oparin Mr. - J. Bernal
4. According to modern concepts, the necessary for the emergence of life on Earth were:
A - certain chemical compounds and the absence of gaseous oxygen
B - the presence of an energy source, certain chemical compounds and an infinitely long time
B - for an unlimited time, certain chemical compounds and the absence of gaseous oxygen
D - certain chemical compounds, the presence of an energy source, the absence of gaseous oxygen, for an unlimited time
5. For the first time in 1953, abiogenic synthesis of organic substances from inorganic ones was experimentally carried out:
A - S. Miller, G. Jury in - S. Fox, S. Miller
B - A. Oparin, J. Haldane Mr. - J. Haldane, G. Yuri
6 . The spontaneous origin of life on Earth in our time seems unlikely because:
A - there are too few active volcanoes on Earth
B - there is not enough ultraviolet radiation to provide energy to the process
B - the electrical activity of the atmosphere is insufficient for the synthesis of compounds
D - chemical compounds from which life could arise would instantly be
Oxidized or absorbed by existing organisms
7. According to the coacervate hypothesis, coacervates possessed the properties of living things because they:
A - consisted of protein molecules and selectively absorbed substances
B - had the ability to reproduce and self-renew chemical composition
B - selectively absorbed substances, increased their volume and decomposed under certain conditions into smaller
D - reacted to a change in the chemical composition of the environment and isolated the compounds that changed it
8. The first living organisms (probionts) that appeared on Earth in terms of nutrition were:
A - anaerobic heterotrophs; B - aerobic chemotrophs
B - anaerobic phototrophs; d - aerobic heterotrophs.
9. According to the theory of biochemical evolution, life:
A - always existed
B - arose repeatedly from inanimate matter
B - brought to our planet from outside
10. According to the theory of panspermia, life
A - arose repeatedly from inanimate matter
B - brought to our planet from outside
B - was created by a supernatural being at a certain time
G - arose as a result of processes subject to physical and chemical laws
Examination on the topic:
"The origin of life on Earth"
Option 1
Part a
1.
b) the presence of catalysts;
d) metabolic processes.
2.
a) anaerobic heterotrophs;
b) aerobic heterotrophs;
c) autotrophs;
d) symbiont organisms.
3. Such a common property of the living as self-regulation includes:
a) heredity;
b) variability;
c) irritability;
d) ontogenesis.
4. The essence of the theory of abiogenesis is:
c) the creation of the world by God;
5. The crystal is not a living system, because:
a) he is not capable of growth;
c) irritability is not characteristic of him;
6. The experiments of Louis Pasteur proved the possibility of:
a) spontaneous generation of life;
d) biochemical evolution.
7.
a) radioactivity;
b) the presence of liquid water;
c) the presence of gaseous oxygen;
d) the mass of the planet.
8. Carbon is the basis of life on Earth, because he:
9. Exclude unnecessary:
a) 1668;
b) F. Redi;
c) meat;
g) bacteria.
10.
a) L. Pasteur;
b) A. Levenguk;
c) L. Spallanzani;
d) F. Redi.
Part B
Complete the sentences.
1. The theory that postulates the creation of the world by God (the Creator) is ....
2. Nuclear organisms that do not have a limited shell of the nucleus and organoids capable of self-reproduction - ....
3. A phase-isolated system interacting with the external environment as an open system, - ....
4. Soviet scientist who proposed a coacervative theory of the origin of life, - ....
5. The process by which the body acquires a new combination of genes is ....
Part B
Give short answers to the following questions.
1. What are the common signs of living and nonliving matter?
2. Why, when the first living organisms appeared in the Earth’s atmosphere, should oxygen be absent?
3. What was Stanley Miller's experience? What corresponded to the “primary ocean” in this experience?
4. What is the main problem of the transition from chemical to biological evolution?
5. List the main provisions of the theory of A.I. Oparina.
Option 2
Part a
Write down the numbers of the questions, write the letters of the correct answers next to them.
1. Living is different from non-living:
a) the composition of inorganic compounds;
c) the interaction of molecules with each other;
d) metabolic processes.
2. The first living organisms on our planet were:
a) anaerobic heterotrophs;
b) aerobic heterotrophs;
c) autotrophs;
d) symbiont organisms.
3.
a) metabolism;
b) reproduction;
c) irritability;
d) ontogenesis.
4. The essence of the theory of biogenesis is:
a) the origin of the living from the nonliving;
b) the origin of the living from the living;
c) the creation of the world by God;
d) bringing life from outer space.
5. A star is not a living system, because:
a) it is not capable of growth;
c) she does not have irritability;
6.
a) spontaneous generation of life;
b) the appearance of the living only from the living;
c) the introduction of the "seeds of life" from outer space;
d) biochemical evolution.
7. Of these conditions, the most important for the emergence of life is:
a) radioactivity;
b) the presence of water;
c) the presence of an energy source;
d) the mass of the planet.
8. Water is the basis of life, because:
a) is a good solvent;
d) has all of the above properties.
9. Exclude unnecessary:
a) 1924;
b) L. Pasteur;
c) meat broth;
g) bacteria.
10. Arrange the following names in a logical sequence:
a) L. Pasteur;
b) S. Miller;
c) J. Haldane;
d) A.I. Oparin.
Part B
Complete the sentences.
1. The process of formation by living organisms of organic molecules from inorganic due to the energy of sunlight - ....
2. Cellular formations possessing some properties of cells (ability to metabolism, self-reproduction, etc.), - ....
3. Separation of a protein solution containing other organic substances into phases with a higher or lower concentration of molecules - ....
4. An English physicist who suggested that adsorption was one of the stages of the concentration of organic substances during prebiological evolution - ....
5. A system of recording hereditary information in DNA molecules in the form of a nucleotide sequence - typical of all living organisms ...
Part B
1. What was Stanley Miller's experience? What corresponded to the lightning in this experiment?
2. Why should the mass of the planet on which life may arise should not be more than 1/20 of the mass of the sun?
3. To what stage of the development of life on Earth can the words of the Gogol hero be attributed: “I don’t remember the numbers. There was no month either. Was the devil know what? "
4. What conditions are necessary for the emergence of life?
5. What is panspermia? Which of the scientists known to you adhered to this theory?
Option 3
Part a
Write down the numbers of the questions, write the letters of the correct answers next to them.
1. Living is different from non-living:
a) the composition of inorganic compounds;
b) ability to self-reproduce;
c) the interaction of molecules with each other;
d) metabolic processes.
2. The first living organisms on our planet were:
a) anaerobic heterotrophs;
b) aerobic heterotrophs;
c) autotrophs;
d) symbiont organisms.
3. Such a common property of the living as self-renewal includes:
a) metabolism;
b) reproduction;
c) irritability;
d) ontogenesis.
4. The essence of creationism is:
a) the origin of the living from the nonliving;
b) the origin of the living from the living;
c) the creation of the world by God;
d) bringing life from outer space.
5. The river is not a living system because:
a) it is not capable of growth;
b) it is not capable of reproduction;
c) she is not capable of irritability;
d) not all properties of the living are inherent in it.
6. The experience of Francesco Redi proved the impossibility of:
a) spontaneous generation of life;
b) the appearance of the living only from the living;
c) the introduction of "seeds of life" from outer space;
d) biochemical evolution.
7. Of these conditions, the most important for the emergence of life is:
a) radioactivity;
b) the presence of water;
c) an unlimited long evolutionary time;
8. In the period of life in the atmosphere of the Earth there should have been no oxygen, because:
a) it is an active oxidizing agent;
b) has a high heat capacity;
c) increases its volume during freezing;
d) all of the above in the complex.
9. Exclude unnecessary:
a) 1953;
b) bacteria;
c) S. Miller;
d) abiogenic synthesis.
10. Arrange the following last names in a logical sequence:
a) L. Pasteur;
b) F. Redi;
c) L. Spallanzani;
d) A.I. Oparin.
Part B
Complete the sentences.
1. The formation of organic molecules from inorganic outside living organisms - ....
2. Bubbles of liquid surrounded by protein films arising from the agitation of aqueous solutions of proteins - ....
3. The ability to reproduce similar biological systems, which is manifested at all levels of organization of living matter, - ....
4. The American scientist who proposed the thermal theory of the origin of protobiopolymers, - ....
5. Protein molecules that accelerate the course of biochemical transformations in aqueous solutions at atmospheric pressure, - ....
Part B
Give a short answer to this question.
1. What is the main difference between burning wood and “burning” glucose in cells?
2. What are the three modern points of view on the problem of the origin of life?
3. Why is carbon the basis of life?
4. What was Stanley Miller's experience?
5. What are the main stages of chemical evolution?
Option 4
Part a
Write down the numbers of the questions, write the letters of the correct answers next to them.
1. Living is different from non-living:
a) the composition of inorganic compounds;
b) the ability to self-regulation;
c) the interaction of molecules with each other;
d) metabolic processes.
2. The first living organisms on our planet were:
a) anaerobic heterotrophs;
b) aerobic heterotrophs;
c) autotrophs;
d) symbiont organisms.
3. Such a common property of the living as self-reproduction includes:
a) metabolism;
b) reproduction;
c) irritability;
d) ontogenesis.
4. The essence of the theory of panspermia is:
a) the origin of the living from the nonliving;
b) the origin of the living from the living;
c) the creation of the world by God;
d) bringing to Earth "seeds of life" from the Cosmos.
5. The glacier is not a living system because:
a) he is not capable of growth;
b) it is not capable of reproduction;
c) he is not capable of irritability;
d) not all properties of the living are inherent in him.
6. The experience of L. Spallanzani proved the impossibility of:
a) spontaneous generation of life;
b) the appearance of the living only from the living;
c) the introduction of the "seeds of life" from outer space;
d) biochemical evolution.
7. Of these conditions, the most important for the emergence of life is:
a) radioactivity;
b) the presence of water;
c) the presence of certain substances;
d) a certain mass of the planet.
8. Carbon is the basis of life, because he:
a) is the most common element on Earth;
b) the first of the chemical elements began to interact with water;
c) has a small atomic weight;
d) is capable of forming stable compounds with double and triple bonds.
To be continued
summary of other presentations"Concepts of the origin of life" - Problem. Primary genetic material. The main difficulty of the hypothesis. Issues in modern science. Biochemical evolution. Degree of ordering. Theory of Panspermia. Archbishop Asher. The world of RNA. Interaction. There are many theories of the origin of life. French scientist. Italian biologist. The main postulates of the theory of biochemical evolution. The idea of \u200b\u200bspontaneous generation. The founder of the theory of panspermia.
“The problem of the origin and essence of life” - Natural-historical approach. Oparin. The concept of stationary state. DNA molecules. The human body, weighing 70 kg, contains 45.5 kg of oxygen. Chirality property. Creationism. Viruses. Messenger RNA. Anaxagoras. Panspermia concept. The idea of \u200b\u200bspontaneous generation. The main provisions. Symposia on the origin of life. Biopolymers. The main merit of Oparin. The concept of biochemical evolution.
“How did life on Earth” - The concept of biogenesis. Earth's atmosphere change. L. Pasteur. Van Helmont. Theory of stationary state. The spontaneous birth of life. The emergence of life on Earth. Theory A.I. Oparina. F. Redi. Vitalism. L. Spallanzani. Panspermia. Life in the Earth. The natural origin of life. The experience of S. Miller. Theories of the origin of life. Microorganisms. Atmosphere of the earth. Creationism. Theory of biochemical evolution.
"Concepts of the origin of life on Earth" - Radiation panspermia. Cell. Evolution theory. Scheme of occurrence. Soviet biochemist. Reverse directional panspermia. The embryos of life. Experiments on the reproduction of amino acids. Chemist Stanley Miller. Plant cell. Theory of Panspermia. Creationism. What is life. Vernadsky. Paracelsus. Chemical elements. Living cell content. Polypeptides. Theory of spontaneous generation. Formaldehyde. A modern view of the emergence of life.
"Theories of the emergence of life" - Organic compounds. Coacervat. Stages of life formation according to Oparin. Organisms are different from non-living. The hypothesis of biopoiesis. The biogenic method. Van Helmont. Theory of biochemical evolution of Oparin. The hypothesis of spontaneous origin of life on Earth. The stationary state hypothesis. French microbiologist Louis Pasteur. The hypothesis of biochemical evolution. The panspermia hypothesis. What is life. The properties of protein.
"The oldest organisms on Earth" - The oldest organisms. Type Brachiopods. Enumeration of temporary divisions. What period do we live in? Similarities. Similarities and differences. Equipment. Modern representatives. Ian Baptist Van Helmont. The theory is evolutionary. Representatives of the class of bivalve mollusks. The birth of life. Comb lock. Class Trilobites. Class Bivalves. Geochronological table. Theory of divine origin.
FEDERAL EDUCATION AGENCY
State educational institution of higher
Faculty of Technology
Department of Mathematical and Natural Sciences
BIOLOGY
Lecture notes
for 1st year students
all forms of learning
Kemerovo 2010
Compiled by:
Teacher,
Reviewed and approved at the meeting
department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
faculty of Technology
In the course of general biology, the basic aspects of the existence and functioning of living systems, in relation to the environment, are considered. And also, the basics of selection of living organisms and genetic engineering. Much attention is paid to the disclosure of the theory of evolution.
© By TIPP, 2010
FOREWORD
Our time is characterized by extremely increased interdependence of people. A person’s life, his health, his working and living conditions almost entirely depend on the correctness of decisions made by so many other people. In turn, the activity of an individual affects the fate of many others. That is why it is very important that the science of life becomes an integral part of the worldview of every person, regardless of their specialty. The builder, technologist, land reclamator needs knowledge of biology in the same way as a doctor or agronomist, for only in this case they will represent the consequences of their production activities for nature and man.
The purpose of this lecture course is to give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe structure of living matter, its most general laws, to introduce it to the diversity of life and the history of its development on Earth. In accordance with this, special attention is paid to the analysis of the relationships between organisms and the conditions of ecosystem stability. The course contains examples that characterize human subordination to all known biological laws.
SECTION 1 ORIGIN AND INITIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE ON THE EARTH
Theme 1.1 The diversity of the living world. The main
properties of living
Terminology
1. Inorganic compounds - elements and simple and complex substances formed by them, which are found in large quantities outside living organisms.
2. Organic compounds - carbon compounds with other elements found mainly in living organisms.
3. Biopolymers - high molecular weight organic compounds whose monomers are simple organic molecules.
4. Cell - a structurally functional unit, as well as a unit of development of all living organisms.
5. the cloth - a set of similar in structure of cells associated with the implementation of common functions.
6. Organ - a set of spatially isolated tissues, specialized in the performance of certain functions.
7. Biological system - biological objects of varying degrees of complexity, having several levels of organization. It has the properties of a whole.
Biology Is a science of life. Biology studies the structure, manifestations of life, the habitat of all living organisms on the planet. Living on the planet is represented by an extraordinary variety of forms, many types of living creatures. Scientists constantly find and describe new species, both existing and extinct in past eras.
One of the main tasks of biology is the disclosure of the general properties of living organisms and an explanation of the reasons for their diversity, identifying the links between the structure and living conditions.
Of great importance in science are the questions of the origin and laws of the development of life on Earth - evolutionary doctrine. Understanding these laws is the foundation of a scientific worldview.
In the subject of study, biology is divided into separate sciences:
Botany;
Zoology;
Anatomy;
The medicine;
Ecology, etc.
Each of these sciences has its own divisions and, thanks to the accumulated knowledge, more and more specializes.
In accordance with the level of organization of living matter, scientific disciplines are distinguished: molecular biology, cytology - the study of the cell, histology - the study of tissues, etc.
Biology uses a variety of study methods:
1. historical;
2. descriptive;
3. instrumental.
In various fields of biology, the importance of borderline disciplines is growing: biophysics, biochemistry, bionics.
The emergence of life and the functioning of living organisms are due to natural laws. Knowing them allows you to make an accurate picture of the world and use it for practical purposes.
Recent advances in biology have led to the emergence of new areas in science, which have become independent sections in the complex. (Genetic Engineering). The practical application of the achievements of modern biology, currently allows you to get new biological substances - food, drugs, materials. The exceptional ability of nature to self-repair created the illusion of its invulnerability, the boundlessness of its resources. But this is not so. Therefore, all human activities should be built taking into account the principles of the organization of the biosphere.
The importance of biology to humans is enormous. General biological patterns are used in solving a variety of issues in many sectors of the economy. In agriculture, great success has been achieved in the cultivation of new varieties of cultivated plants, breeds of domestic animals, and strains of microorganisms. In the future, the practical significance of biology will increase even more. This is due to the fast growth of the planet’s population, with an increasing number of urban population. In such a situation, intensification of agricultural production is important. An important role in this will be played by the scientifically sound use of natural resources.
The first living creatures appeared on our planet 3 billion years ago. From these early forms, countless species of living organisms arose, which, appeared, flourished for a certain time, and then died out. From pre-existing forms originated modern living organisms, forming the four kingdoms of nature:
Over 1.5 million species of animals;
350 thousand species of plants;
A significant number of species of mushrooms;
Many organisms are prokaryotes.
The world of living creatures, including humans, is represented by biological systems of various structural organizations. All living organisms are made up of cells. A cell may be a separate organism and part of a multicellular plant or animal. It can be simple or complex. Any cell is a whole organism, capable of performing all functions to ensure vital functions. The cells that make up the multicellular organism are specialized - they perform one function and are not able to exist outside the body. In higher organisms, the interconnection and interdependence of cells leads to the creation of a new quality that is not equal to a simple sum. Their connection in the process of evolution forms an integral organism with certain properties inherent only to it.
Levels of organization of living matter
Wildlife is a complex system.
There are several levels of organization of living:
1. Molecular (0.1 - 1 mm.) 10m.
From this level, the most important vital processes of the body begin. Any system, no matter how complicated it is, is implemented at the level of interaction of biological macromolecules - proteins, polysaccharides, DNA.
2. Cellular(10nm - 1mkm) 1m.
Cell- the smallest structural unit of all living things. There are no non-cellular life forms. Viruses are an exception because they live only in a cell.
3. Fabric (10mkm - 100mkm) 1m.
the cloth represents a set of cells similar in structure, united by the performance of a common function.
4. Organ (100mkm - 1mm) 1m.
Organ - This is a structural and functional combination of several types of tissues.
5. Organismic (1mm - 1dm) 1m.
Organism - This is the simplest unicellular or multicellular system capable of independent existence. It is formed by a combination of tissues and organs.
6. Population - species.
The combination of organisms of one species, united by a common habitat creates a population in which elementary evolutionary transformations proceed.
7. Biogeocenotic.
Biogeocenosis is a set of organisms of different species and organization of varying complexity with all environmental factors.
8. Biosphere.
This is the highest level of organization of life. It includes - living matter, inert substance and biocosal substance.
The planet’s biomass is 2.5 · 1012 t. Of these, 99% of the mass of land organisms is represented by green plants. At the biosphere level, the circulation of substances and the conversion of energy occur, associated with the life of all living organisms on the planet.
Living system criteria
This is a rating system that distinguishes living systems from inanimate objects.
1. Features of the chemical composition. The composition of living organisms includes the same chemical elements as in the objects of inanimate nature. However, their ratio is not the same. Elements of inanimate nature are represented: O2, Si, Fe, Mg, Al, S, MeO, MeS, MeCO3, etc. In living organisms, 98% of the composition falls on O2, C, N2, H2. They are part of complex organic molecules: proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, fats.
2. Metabolism. All living organisms are capable of metabolism with the environment. The most important processes are synthesis and decay. Living organisms absorb various substances from the environment, they are processed. Part of it goes to building the body, part to replenish energy costs. This is assimilation or plastic exchange. This is dissimilation or energy exchange, when organic compounds break down into simple ones and energy is released. Metabolism provides homeostasis of the body - this is the constancy of its structure and functions.
3. A single principle of structural organization. All organisms at any stage of complexity and size are composed of cells.
4. Reproduction. At the body level, reproduction is manifested in the form of reproduction of individuals. Offspring are similar to parents. Self-reproduction is based on the reaction of matrix synthesis with DNA self-doubling.
5. Heredity. This is the ability of organisms to transmit their signs, properties, abilities from generation to generation. Heredity provides material continuity in a number of generations.
6. Growth and development. The ability to develop is a universal property of matter. Under development is understood the irreversible directed change of objects of nature. As a result, a new, qualitative state of the object arises, its composition and structure change.
A) individual - ontogenesis.
B) historical - phylogenesis.
7. Irritability. This is the property of living organisms to selectively respond to external influences. Multicellular organisms respond to irritation by means of a reflex. Organisms that do not have a nervous system react with tropisms - the direction of growth, movement (heliotropism - movement to the sun).
8. Discreteness. This is a property of living matter. It goes from simple to complex. Discreteness of the body structure is the basis of its structural order.
9. Autoregulation. This is the ability of living organisms in a changing environment to maintain a constant chemical composition and the intensity of physiological processes. This activity is regulated by the function of special systems.
10. Volatility. Living bodies are energetically open systems. Metabolic processes are carried out in them through the shell (membrane, skin). They maintain a consistent composition and unity of the system. Living organisms exist with the constant flow of matter and energy from the outside.
A life - this is active, going with the expense of energy received from the outside, maintaining and self-reproduction of a specific structure.
test questions
1. The essence of the term "Biology".
2. The division of biology in the subject of study.
3. The division of biology at the level of organization.
4. The importance of biology for humans.
5. The diversity of the living world.
6. Biological systems.
7. Levels of organization of the living.
8. Criteria of living systems.
Theme 1.2 The emergence of life on Earth
Terminology
1. Nebula - The accumulation of gas and dust matter in the universe, which is large.
2. Galaxy - the star and its surrounding planets.
3. star system - a system of stars with the planets surrounding them, developing from one nebula.
4. Planet - a celestial body moving in a close to circular orbit around a star, glowing with reflected light.
5. Abiogenic synthesis - the formation of organic molecules from inorganic outside living organisms.
6. Energy - a general quantitative measure of the momentum of matter.
7. Solution - homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances distributed in a solvent.
8. Coacervation - separation of the IUD solution into phases with a higher and lower concentration of molecules.
9. Coacervat - fluid bubbles surrounded by protein films.
10. Adsorption - absorption of a substance from a liquid medium by a solid surface.
The question of the origin of life on Earth, as well as probably on other planets of other stellar systems, worried a person from the time he began to become aware of himself as a person, began to know himself and the world around him. The first attempts at a theoretical solution to the problem date back to antiquity and bear the imprints of those eras and views. There are two points of view on this issue from ancient times: one argues the possibility of the origin of living from nonliving - this is the theory of abiogenesis, the other - the theory of biogenesis - denies the spontaneous origin of life. Modern views can only put this debate on a scientific basis and thereby justify the correctness of the theory of abiogenesis.
Representations of ancient and medieval philosophers
The general level of knowledge in the ancient world was low, the views were fantastic. Ignorance of the methods of reproduction of organisms served as the reason that it was considered possible the emergence of living things from dead remains, or inorganic substances. These views were supported by the church. The discovery of the microscope broadened the idea of \u200b\u200bthe structure of organisms, the theory of the origin of living from nonliving was rejected. The experiments of the Italian Redi (mid-17th century) proved that all living things come from living things. However, the theory of spontaneous generation of living from nonliving has long existed in the ears of scientists. The experiments of the Frenchman L. Pasteur finally dispelled this theory. Based on the work of Pasteur, sterilization and canning methods were developed. This happened in 1870.
Subsequently, this question was transferred to the cell, and microorganisms were no longer considered. Simultaneously with the work of Pasteur, a theory of eternity of life arose. According to Richter's theory in 1865, life on Earth was brought from other planets. This theory does not reveal the essence of the origin of life, it is only trying to explain its appearance.
A special place in resolving the issue belongs to materialistic theories. The key issue here is the difference between living and nonliving. Scientists take the formation of protein compounds as the basis for the origin of living. According to the theory of the Englishman Ellen in 1899. the first appearance of nitrogen compounds on Earth is timed to coincide with the period when water vapor condensed into the water and covered the surface of the planet. Water was saturated with salts, which are of great importance for the formation and activity of protein. In this hot solution, in the presence of ultraviolet light, electric discharges, a large amount of carbon dioxide, the nucleation of living things began, which subsequently went a long way of evolution.
Studying the question of the origin of living at the same time, one should understand the processes occurring during the formation of the planet. The answer to these questions is given by astronomy and chemistry. The main method of space exploration is spectroscopy. Analysis of the light emitted by stars provides rich information about their chemical composition. Since the end of the 19th century 2 million were registered. spectra of 15 thousand stars and the Sun. Conclusion - the same chemical elements exist everywhere and the same physical laws are fulfilled. The formation of the planet.
The most common element is hydrogen (H-H, H-He). In a universe formed of hydrogen, stars form as primary matter. The main nuclear reaction is the fusion of hydrogen nuclei and the formation of a helium atom and the release of energy. This energy drives the universe. According to the law of conservation of masses, the energy released during formation is converted into radiation energy. Further interaction of the elements leads to the formation of other chemical elements. These reactions are expressed in the formation of more complex molecules and their aggregates - dust particles. They form clusters of gas and dust matter in space. For example, a giant nebula in the constellation Orion. Its diameter is 15 light years, the amount of dust is enough to form 100 thousand stars the size of the Sun. The Milky Way nebula has a diameter of 100 thousand light years. The Orion Nebula is the closest to us, at a distance of 1,500 light-years. From a gas-dust cloud 4.5 billion years ago, the Earth and other planets of the solar system formed. Despite the common origin of the planets, only on Earth appeared life and reached an exceptional variety. For the emergence of life on Earth, cosmic and planetary conditions were necessary. Firstly, these are the optimal sizes of the planet. Secondly - the movement in a circular orbit provides constant heat. Thirdly, the constant emission of the star. All these conditions were satisfied by the Earth, on which about 4.5 billion years ago conditions were created for a higher level of development of matter and its evolution in the direction of the origin of life.
Modern ideas about the origin of life. All modern ideas about the origin of life on Earth are based on the recognition of the abiogenic, i.e. non-biological, occurrence of organic substances from inorganic molecules. This is the opinion of a Russian scientist (1924).
Chemical evolution
At the first stages, the Earth had a very high temperature. As it cooled, the heavy elements moved to its center, and the light remained on the surface. The metals were oxidized and there was no free oxygen in the atmosphere. It consisted of H2, CH4, NH3, HCN and was of a reducing nature. This served as a prerequisite for the emergence of organic substances in a non-biological way. Until the beginning of the 20th century, it was believed that they can occur only in the body. In this regard, they were called organic, and substances - minerals, inorganic. In 1953 it was proved that passing a current through a mixture of gases H2, CH4, NH3, HCN in the absence of oxygen, a mixture of amino acids was obtained. Subsequently, many organic compounds were obtained abiogenically. All of them were subsequently discovered in space.
More than 4 billion years ago, the “Miller’s flask” was the entire globe. Volcanoes erupted, lava flowed, steam swirled, lightning flashed. As the planet cools, water vapor condenses and rains on the planet for millions of years. The primary ocean was formed, hot and saturated with salts, in addition, the resulting sugars, amino acids, and organic acids got there. As the climate softened, the formation of more complex compounds became possible, as a result of which primary biopolymers appeared - polynucleotides and polypyptides.
The primary ocean contained various organic and inorganic molecules in soluble form. Their concentration was constantly increasing and gradually the water became a “broth” of nutritious organic compounds. Each molecule has a specific structural organization: some are dissociated, some have hydration shells. Organic molecules have a large molecular weight and complex structure. Molecules surrounded by an aqueous shell combine to form high molecular weight complexes - coacervates. In the primary ocean, coacervate droplets absorbed other substances either collapsed or coarsened. As a result, the droplets became more complicated and adapted to external conditions. Among the coacervates, the selection of the most stable forms has begun. Differences appeared between the chemical composition of the internal and external environment. As a result of chemical evolution, those forms were preserved that, when decayed into subsidiaries, did not lose their structural features. This is the ability to reproduce itself. During evolution, the association of nucleic acids and protein molecules has led to the emergence of a genetic code. This nucleotide sequence served as information for the amino acid sequence in the protein molecule. (Reproduction of their own kind). Gradually, the lipid layers around the coacervates were transformed into the outer membrane. This predetermined the paths of further evolution. The formation of primary cellular organisms laid the foundation for biological evolution.
The occurrence of prokaryotes
The selection of coacervates lasted about 750 million years. As a result, nuclear-free prokaryotes appeared. By the method of solution, they were heterotrophs - they used organics of the primary ocean. In the absence of atmospheric oxygen, anaerobic metabolism occurred in them. It is ineffective. Gradually, the supply of food in the ocean was depleted. The competition for food has begun.
Organisms capable of using solar energy to synthesize organics were in a better position. This is how photosynthesis came about. This led to the emergence of a new power source. Then, photosynthetic organisms learned to use water as a source of hydrogen. The assimilation of carbon dioxide was accompanied by the release of oxygen and the incorporation of carbon into organic compounds. (Today, ocean surface prokaryotes produce up to 78% of renewable oxygen.)
The transition from the primary atmosphere to the oxygen medium is a very important event. An ozone screen forms in the upper layers, and a more favorable, oxygen type of metabolism appears. On Earth, new forms of life began to arise with a wider use of the environment.
The emergence of eukaryotes
Eukaryotes have arisen as a result of a symbiosis of various prokaryotes. Thus, the ancestors of the primitive flagellar protozoa living now appeared. Symbiosis of flagella with photosynthesizing yielded algae or plants.
Unicellular abilities in habitat development were limited. 2.6 billion years ago appeared multicellular. The basis of modern ideas about the origin is explained by the theory of phagocytella. Multicellular originates from colonial flagella. They exist now. These colonies have become a simple but integral organism.
Thus, the emergence of life on Earth is associated with a long process of chemical evolution. The formation of the membrane - membrane contributed to the beginning of biological evolution. Both the simplest and the most complex structures, based on their structural organization, have a cell.
test questions
1. The history of ideas about the origin of life.
2. The work of L. Pasteur.
3. The theory of eternity of life.
4. The formation of inorganic substances and the formation of the planet.
5. Theory.
6. Biological evolution.
7. The emergence of the first multicellular.
Section2 Cytology - TEACHING ABOUT CELL
Theme 2.1 Chemical organization of the cell. Macro - and micronutrients
Terminology
1. Bioelements - chemical elements that are the basis of organic molecules.
2. Macronutrients - chemical elements that make up organic molecules in quantities greater than 1%.
3. Trace elements - chemical elements that make up organic molecules in an amount not exceeding 0.001%.
4. Homeostasis - the state of dynamic equilibrium of the natural system, supported by the activities of regulatory systems.
5. Buffer solutions - a solution of organic or inorganic substances, the pH of which does not change when small amounts of alkali or acid are added.
The simplest microorganisms are single cells. The body of all multicellular cells consists of more or fewer cells, which are the blocks that make up a living organism. Regardless of whether the cell is an integral system or part of it, it has a set of features common to all cells.
Chemical organization of cells
The composition of the cells includes about 70 elements of the periodic system, which are also found in inanimate nature. This is one of the proofs of the commonality of living and inanimate nature. However, the ratio of the elements, their contribution to the formation of the elements that make up the body and the inanimate, differ sharply.
Depending on the ratio of elements in the body, there are:
1. macronutrients (98% of the cell mass) H2, O2, C, N.
2. trace elements (1.5%) S, P, K, Na, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, Cl. Each of them performs very important functions in the cell.
3. other (0.5%) B, Zn, Cu, I2, F2CO, Se.
All these elements are involved in the construction of the body either in the form of ions, or as part of certain compounds - molecules of organic and inorganic compounds.
Inorganic substances in the cell
These include water and mineral salts.
Water - The most common inorganic compound in living organisms. Its amount ranges from 10% in tooth enamel to 90% in germ cells. It depends on age, time of day, time of year.
Water molecules are represented by dipoles: depending on the temperature, the molecules can be free or combine into groups with the presence of hydrogen bonds. The dipole nature determines the high chemical activity of water. Water plays the role of the environment in the cell, it brings and carries away nutrients. Water enters into numerous hydrolysis reactions. Having good thermal conductivity, water regulates the temperature in the cell.
Mineral salts -this is a large part of inorganic compounds. They are in the form of ions or undissociated molecules. Of great importance are K +, Na +, Ca + 2. They provide a constant water content, the environment of the solution. Buffering of the medium ensures the constancy of all internal processes in the cell.
Organic matter in the cell
They make up 20-30% of the cell mass. These include biopolymers - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, fats, ATP, etc.
Different types of cells include an unequal amount of organic compounds. Complex carbohydrates predominate in plant cells, while proteins and fats predominate in animals. Nevertheless, each group of organic substances in any type of cell performs the functions of: providing energy, is a building material, carries information, etc.
Squirrels. Among the organic substances of the cell, proteins occupy first place in quantity and value. In animals, they account for 50% of the dry cell mass.
In the human body there are many types of protein molecules that differ from each other and from proteins of other organisms.
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Peptide bond:
When combined, the molecules form: a dipeptide, tripeptide or polypeptide. This compound is 20 or more amino acids. The order of conversion of amino acids in a molecule is the most diverse. This allows the existence of variants that differ in the requirement and properties of protein molecules.
The sequence of amino acids in a molecule is called structure.
Primary - linear.
Secondary - spiral.
Tertiary - globules.
Quaternary - the union of globules (hemoglobin).
The loss of a structural organization by a molecule is called denaturation. It is caused by a change in temperature, pH, radiation. With little exposure, the molecule can restore its properties. It is used in medicine (antibiotics).
The functions of proteins in the cell are diverse. The most important is construction. Proteins are involved in the formation of all cell membranes in organoids. The catalytic function is extremely important - all enzymes are proteins. Contractile proteins provide motor function. Transport - consists in joining chemical elements and transferring them to tissues. The protective function is provided by special proteins - antibodies formed in white blood cells. Proteins serve as a source of energy - with the complete breakdown of 1 g of protein, 11.6 kJ are released.
Carbohydrates. These are compounds of carbon hydrogen and oxygen. Represented by sugars. The cell contains up to 5%. The richest - plant cells - up to 90% of the mass (potatoes, rice). They are divided into simple and complex. Simple - monosugar (glucose) C6H12O6, grape sugar, fructose. Disakhara - (sucrose) C] 2H22O11 beet and cane sugar. Polysaccharide (cellulose, starch) (C6H10O5) n.
Carbohydrates perform mainly construction and energy functions. During the oxidation of 1 g of carbohydrate, 17.6 kJ are released. Starch and glycogen serve as the energy reserve of the cell.
Lipids. These are fats and fat-like substances in the cell. They are esters of glycerol and high molecular weight saturated and unsaturated acids. Can be solid and liquid - oils. Plants are contained in seeds, from 5-15% of dry matter.
The main function - energy - when splitting 1 g of fat, 38.9 kJ are released. Fats are reserves of nutrients. Fats perform a building function, are a good heat insulator.
Nucleic acids.These are complex organic compounds. They consist of C, H2, O2, N2, P. They are contained in the nuclei and cytoplasm.
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a) DNA - a biological polynucleotide consisting of two chains of nucleotides. Nucleotides - consist of 4 nitrogenous bases: 2 purines - Adenine and Valine, 2 pyriminedins Cytosine and Guanine, as well as sugar - deoxyribose and the remainder of phosphoric acid.
In each chain, the nucleotides are connected by covalent bonds. Nucleotide chains form helices. A DNA helix packed with proteins forms a structure - a chromosome.
b) RNA is a polymer whose monomers are nucleotides, close DNA, nitrogenous bases - A, D, C. Instead of thymine, there is Uration. Carbohydrate RNA is ribose, there is a residue of phosphoric acid.
Double-stranded RNAs are carriers of genetic information. Single chain - transfer information about the sequence of amino acids in a protein. There are several single-stranded RNAs:
Ribosomal - 3-5 thousand nucleotides;
Information - nucleotides;
Transport - 76-85 nucleotides.
Protein synthesis is carried out on ribosomes with the participation of all types of RNA.
test questions
1. A cell - an organism or part of it?
2. The elemental composition of cells.
3. Water and minerals.
4. Organic matter of the cell.
6. Carbohydrates, fats.
Theme 2.2 Structure and functions of the cell
Terminology
1. Biological membrane - a bimolecular layer of phospholipids with various protein molecules immersed in it from different sides.
2. Organoids - strictly specialized structures constantly present in the cytoplasm.
3. Cytoskeleton - a system of microtubules and protein fibers that maintains the shape of cells and the expanse of structures in the cytoplasm.
4. Mitochondria - energy stations of the cell, on the membranes of which the enzymes of energy metabolism are ordered.
5. Plastids - organelles in which photosynthesis is carried out.
6. Inclusions - structures that are not constantly present in the cytoplasm, which are the products of the vital functions of cells and play the role of a supply of nutrients.
Biochemical transformations are inextricably linked with various structures of a living cell, which are responsible for the performance of a particular function. Such structures are called organelles, since, like the organs of the whole organism, they perform a specific function. By the level of organization (degree of complexity), all cells are divided into nuclear-free - prokaryotes and nuclear - eukaryotes. To nuclear-free include bacteria and blue-green algae. To eukaryotes - cells of fungi, animals and plants.
Thus, in modern science two levels of cellular organization are distinguished: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotes retain the features of the most ancient times: they are very simply arranged. On this basis, they are allocated into an independent kingdom - shotguns.
Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus bounded by the membrane, as well as complex "energy stations" - mitochondria. In other words, all cells of nuclear organisms are highly organized, adapted to oxygen consumption and therefore can produce a large amount of energy.
The structure of prokaryotes
Typical prokaryotes are bacteria. They live everywhere: in water, soil, food. The list of living conditions shows how high a degree of fitness prokaryotes have, despite the simplicity of their structure. Bacteria are primitive forms of life and it can be assumed that they arose at the earliest stages of the development of life on Earth. Bacteria originally lived in the seas. From them came the modern microorganisms. A man became acquainted with the world of microbes after manufacturing lenses with strong magnification.
1.
a) the composition of inorganic compounds; b) the presence of catalysts;
2.
3. Such a common property of the living as self-regulation includes:
a) heredity; b) variability; c) irritability; d) ontogenesis.
4. The essence of the theory of abiogenesis is:
5. The crystal is not a living system, because:
c) irritability is not characteristic of him; d) not all properties of the living are inherent in him.
6. The experiments of Louis Pasteur proved the possibility of:
7.
a) radioactivity; b) the presence of liquid water; c) the presence of gaseous oxygen; d) the mass of the planet.
8. Carbon is the basis of life on Earth, because he:
a) is the most common element on Earth;
b) the first of the chemical elements began to interact with water; c) has a small atomic weight;
9. Exclude unnecessary: \u200b\u200ba) 1668; b) F. Redi; c) meat; g) bacteria.
10.
a) L. Pasteur; b) A. Levenguk; c) L. Spallanzani; d) F. Redi.
Part B Complete the sentences. 1. The theory that postulates the creation of the world by God (the Creator) is ....
2. Nuclear organisms that do not have a limited shell of the nucleus and organoids capable of self-reproduction - ....
3. A phase-isolated system interacting with the external environment as an open system, - ....
4. Soviet scientist who proposed a coacervative theory of the origin of life, - ....
5. The process by which the body acquires a new combination of genes is ....
Part C Give short answers to the following questions.
1. What are the common signs of living and nonliving matter?
2. Why, when the first living organisms appeared in the Earth’s atmosphere, should oxygen be absent?
3. What was Stanley Miller's experience? What corresponded to the “primary ocean” in this experience?
4. What is the main problem of the transition from chemical to biological evolution?
5. List the main provisions of the theory of A.I. Oparina.
Theme “The Origin of Life on Earth” Option 2 Part A Write the correct answers.
1. Living is different from non-living:
c) the interaction of molecules with each other; d) metabolic processes.
2. The first living organisms on our planet were:
a) anaerobic heterotrophs; b) aerobic heterotrophs; c) autotrophs; d) symbiont organisms.
3.
4. The essence of the theory of biogenesis is:
a) the origin of the living from the nonliving; b) the origin of the living from the living;
c) the creation of the world by God; d) bringing life from outer space.
5. A star is not a living system, because:
c) she does not have irritability; d) not all properties of the living are inherent in it.
6.
a) spontaneous generation of life; b) the appearance of the living only from the living;
c) the introduction of the "seeds of life" from outer space; d) biochemical evolution.
7. Of these conditions, the most important for the emergence of life is:
a) radioactivity; b) the presence of water; c) the presence of an energy source; d) the mass of the planet.
8. Water is the basis of life, because:
a) is a good solvent; b) has a high heat capacity;
c) increases its volume during freezing; d) has all of the above properties.
9. Exclude unnecessary: \u200b\u200ba) 1924; b) L. Pasteur; c) meat broth; g) bacteria.
10. Arrange the following names in a logical sequence:
a) L. Pasteur; b) S. Miller; c) J. Haldane; d) A.I. Oparin.
Part B Complete the sentences. 1. The process of formation by living organisms of organic molecules from inorganic due to the energy of sunlight - .... 2. Cellular formations possessing some properties of cells (ability to metabolism, self-reproduction, etc.), - ....
3. Separation of a protein solution containing other organic substances into phases with a higher or lower concentration of molecules - ....
4. An English physicist who suggested that adsorption was one of the stages of the concentration of organic substances during prebiological evolution - ....
5. A system of recording hereditary information in DNA molecules in the form of a nucleotide sequence - typical of all living organisms ...
Part C
1. What was Stanley Miller's experience? What corresponded to the lightning in this experiment?
2. Why should the mass of the planet on which life may arise should not be more than 1/20 of the mass of the sun?
3. To what stage of the development of life on Earth can the words of the Gogol hero be attributed: “I don’t remember the numbers. There was no month either. Was the devil know what? "
4. What conditions are necessary for the emergence of life?
5. What is panspermia? Which of the scientists known to you adhered to this theory?
Theme “The Origin of Life on Earth” Option 3 Part A Write the correct answers.
1. Living is different from non-living:
a) the composition of inorganic compounds; b) ability to self-reproduce;
c) the interaction of molecules with each other; d) metabolic processes.
2. The first living organisms on our planet were:
a) anaerobic heterotrophs; b) aerobic heterotrophs; c) autotrophs; d) symbiont organisms.
3. Such a common property of the living as self-renewal includes:
a) metabolism; b) reproduction; c) irritability; d) ontogenesis.
4. The essence of creationism is:
a) the origin of the living from the nonliving; b) the origin of the living from the living;
c) the creation of the world by God; d) bringing life from outer space.
5. The river is not a living system because:
a) it is not capable of growth; b) it is not capable of reproduction;
c) she is not capable of irritability; d) not all properties of the living are inherent in it.
6. The experience of Francesco Redi proved the impossibility of:
a) spontaneous generation of life; b) the appearance of the living only from the living;
c) the introduction of "seeds of life" from outer space; d) biochemical evolution.
7. Of these conditions, the most important for the emergence of life is:
a) radioactivity; b) the presence of water; c) an unlimited long evolutionary time; d) a certain mass of the planet.
8. In the period of life in the atmosphere of the Earth there should have been no oxygen, because:
a) it is an active oxidizing agent; b) has a high heat capacity;
c) increases its volume during freezing; d) all of the above in the complex.
9. Exclude unnecessary: \u200b\u200ba) 1953; b) bacteria; c) S. Miller; d) abiogenic synthesis.
10.
a) L. Pasteur; b) F. Redi; c) L. Spallanzani; d) A.I. Oparin.
Part B Complete the sentences. 1. The formation of organic molecules from inorganic outside living organisms - ....
2. Bubbles of liquid surrounded by protein films arising from the agitation of aqueous solutions of proteins - ....
3. The ability to reproduce similar biological systems, which is manifested at all levels of organization of living matter, - ....
4. The American scientist who proposed the thermal theory of the origin of protobiopolymers, - ....
5. Protein molecules that accelerate the course of biochemical transformations in aqueous solutions at atmospheric pressure, -
Part C Give a short answer to this question.
1. What is the main difference between burning wood and “burning” glucose in cells?
2. What are the three modern points of view on the problem of the origin of life?
3. Why is carbon the basis of life?
4. What was Stanley Miller's experience?
5. What are the main stages of chemical evolution?
Theme “The Origin of Life on Earth” Option 4 Part A Write the correct answers.
1. Living is different from non-living:
a) the composition of inorganic compounds; b) the ability to self-regulation;
c) the interaction of molecules with each other; d) metabolic processes.
2. The first living organisms on our planet were:
a) anaerobic heterotrophs; b) aerobic heterotrophs; c) autotrophs; d) symbiont organisms.
3. Such a common property of the living as self-reproduction includes:
a) metabolism; b) reproduction; c) irritability; d) ontogenesis.
4. The essence of the theory of panspermia is:
a) the origin of the living from the nonliving; b) the origin of the living from the living;
c) the creation of the world by God; d) bringing to Earth "seeds of life" from the Cosmos.
5. The glacier is not a living system because:
a) he is not capable of growth; b) it is not capable of reproduction;
c) he is not capable of irritability; d) not all properties of the living are inherent in him.
6. The experience of L. Spallanzani proved the impossibility of:
a) spontaneous generation of life; b) the appearance of the living only from the living;
c) the introduction of the "seeds of life" from outer space; d) biochemical evolution.
7. Of these conditions, the most important for the emergence of life is:
a) radioactivity; b) the presence of water; c) the presence of certain substances; d) a certain mass of the planet.
8. Carbon is the basis of life, because he:
a) is the most common element on Earth; c) has a small atomic weight;
b) the first of the chemical elements began to interact with water;
d) is capable of forming stable compounds with double and triple bonds.
9. Exclude unnecessary: \u200b\u200ba) DNA; b) genetic code; c) chromosome; d) cell membrane.
10. Arrange the following last names in a logical sequence:
a) A.I. Oparin; b) L. Pasteur; c) S. Miller; d) J. Haldane.
Part B Complete the sentences. 1. Organisms with a limited shell of the nucleus, with self-reproducing organoids, internal membranes and the cytoskeleton, - ....
2. A system characteristic of all organisms for recording hereditary information in DNA molecules as a sequence of nucleotides - ....
3. The ability to reproduce biologically similar systems, manifested at all levels of organization of living matter, - ....
4. The creators of the low-temperature theory of the origin of protobiopolymers - ....
5. Cellular formations possessing some properties of cells: the ability to metabolism, self-reproduction, etc., - ....
Part C Give a short answer to this question.
1. What role has the study of meteorites played in the development of the theory of the origin of life?
2. What is racemization and chirality?
3. Why was water in the liquid phase a necessary condition for the emergence of life?
4. What was Stanley Miller's experience? What was the gas composition of the “atmosphere”?
5. What are the main stages in studying the origin of life on Earth?
The answersOption 1 Part a : 1g, 2a, 3c, 4a, 5g, 6b, 7b, 8g, 9g, 10g, b, c, a.
Part B : 1 - creationism; 2 - prokaryotes; 3 - coacervate; 4 - A.I. Oparin; 5 - sexual process.
Part C. 1. Living and nonliving matter consist of the same chemical elements, physical and chemical processes with their participation are carried out according to general laws.
2. Oxygen is a strong oxidizing agent, and all newly emerging organic molecules would be immediately oxidized.
3. The “primary ocean” in this experiment corresponded to a flask with boiling water.
4. The main problem of the transition from chemical to biological evolution is to explain the occurrence of self-reproducing biological systems (cells) in general and the genetic code in particular.
5. The main provisions of the theory of Oparin:
Life is one of the stages of the evolution of the Universe;
- the emergence of life is a natural result of the chemical evolution of carbon compounds;
- for the transition from chemical to biological evolution, the formation and natural selection of holistic, multi-molecular systems separate from the environment, but constantly interacting with it, are necessary.
Option 2 Part a : 1 b, d, 2a, 3b, 4b, 5g, 6a, 7b, 8g, 9a, 10a, d, c, b.
Part B : 1 - photosynthesis; 2 - protobionts; 3 - coacervation; 4 - J. Bernal; 5 is the genetic code.
Part C . 1. In 1953, S. Miller created an experimental setup in which the conditions of the primary Earth were modeled and molecules of biologically important organic compounds were obtained by abiogenic synthesis. "Lightning" in this experiment was simulated by high-voltage electric discharges.
2. If the mass of the planet is more than 1/20 of the mass of the Sun, intense nuclear reactions begin on it, which increases its temperature, and it begins to glow with its own light.
3. To the initial stage of the biochemical evolution of the Earth.
4. The following basic conditions are necessary for the emergence of life:
The presence of certain chemicals (including water in the liquid phase);
- availability of energy sources;
- restorative atmosphere.
Additional conditions may be the mass of the planet and a certain level of radioactivity.
5. Panspermia - the introduction of the "seeds of life" on Earth from space. Supporters: J. Liebig, G. Helmholtz, S. Arrhenius, V.I. Vernadsky.
Option 3 Part a : 1 b, d, 2a, 3a, 4c, 5g, 6a, 7b, 8a, 9b, 10b, c, a, d.
Part B : 1 - abiogenic synthesis; 2 - microspheres; 3 - self-reproduction; 4 - S. Fox; 5 - enzymes.
Part C . 1. When burning wood, all the energy released is dissipated in the form of light and heat. During the oxidation of glucose in cells, energy is stored in the macroergic bonds of ATP.
2. There are three main approaches to the problem of the origin of life:
The problem does not exist, because life was either created by God (creationism), or exists in the Universe from the moment of its occurrence and is distributed randomly (panspermia);
- the problem is insoluble due to lack of knowledge and the inability to reproduce the conditions in which life arose;
- the problem can be solved (A.I. Oparin, J. Bernal, S. Fox and others).
3. Carbon is tetravalent, capable of forming stable compounds with double and triple bonds, which increases the reactivity of its compounds.
4. In 1953, S. Miller created an experimental setup in which the conditions of the primary Earth were modeled and molecules of biologically important organic compounds were obtained by abiogenic synthesis.
5. Atoms -\u003e simple chemical compounds -\u003e simple bioorganic compounds -\u003e macromolecules -\u003e organized systems.
Option 4 Part a : 1 b, d, 2a, 3b, 4g, 5g, 6a, 7c, 8g, 9g, 10 b, a, d, c.
Part B : 1 - eukaryotes; 2 - genetic code; 3 - self-reproduction; 4 - K. Simonescu, F. Denes; 5 - protobionts.
Part C . 1. An analysis of the chemical composition of meteorites showed that some of them contain amino acids (glutamic acid, proline, glycine, etc.), fatty acids (17 types). Thus, organic matter is not exclusively owned by the Earth, but can also be found in space.
2. Racemization is a reaction of interconversion of D- and L-forms of any stereoisomer; chirality - the existence of two or more mirror asymmetric stereoisomers of a chemical compound.
3. Organisms are 80% or more of water.
4. In 1953, S. Miller created an experimental setup in which the conditions of the primary Earth were modeled and molecules of biologically important organic compounds were obtained by abiogenic synthesis.
The gas composition of the “atmosphere”: methane, ammonia, water vapor, hydrogen.
5. From ancient times to the experiments of F. Redi - the period of universal faith in the possibility of spontaneous generation of the living; 1668-1862 (before the experiments of L. Pasteur) - experimental clarification of the impossibility of spontaneous generation; 1862-1922 (before the speech of A.I. Oparin) - philosophical analysis of the problem; 1922-1953 - development of scientific hypotheses about the origin of life and their experimental verification; from 1953 to the present - experimental and theoretical studies of the transition from chemical to biological evolution.
Note
Part A answers are evaluated at 1 point, part B at 2 points, part C at 3 points. The maximum number of points for the test - 35.
Rating 5 : 26-35 points; assessment 4 : 18-25 points; assessment 3 : 12-17 points; assessment 2 : less than 12 points.
ORIGIN OF LIVING BEINGS
INmiddle Ages, people willingly believed that geese came from fir trees, and lambs are born from the fruits of a melon tree. The beginning of these ideas, called "Theory of spontaneous generation", was laid by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. In the XVII century. F. Redi suggested that the living is born only from the living and there is no spontaneous generation. He put snake, fish, eel and a piece of beef in four cans and covered them with gauze to keep air in. He filled four other similar cans with the same pieces of meat, but left them open. In the experiment, Redi changed only one condition - the bank is open or closed. Flies could not get into a closed jar. After some time, worms appeared in the meat lying in the open (control) vessels. In closed banks no worms were found.
In the XIX century. L. Pasteur dealt a serious blow to the theory of spontaneous generation, suggesting that life is introduced into the nutrient medium together with air in the form of spores. The scientist designed a flask with a neck that looks like a swan neck, filled it with meat broth and boiled it on an alcohol lamp. After boiling, the flask was left on the table, and all the house dust and microbes in the air, easily penetrating through the opening of the neck inward, settled on a bend without getting into the broth. The contents of the flask remained unchanged for a long time. However, if you break the neck (the scientist used control flasks), then the broth quickly becomes cloudy. Thus, Pasteur proved that life does not originate in the broth, but is brought from outside along with air containing spores of fungi and bacteria. Consequently, scientists, putting their experiments, refuted one of the most important arguments of the supporters of the theory of spontaneous generation, who believed that air is the "active principle" that ensures the emergence of living things from nonliving things.
C2. Fill in the table “Comparative characteristics of the experiments of F. Redi and L. Pasteur” with the columns marked with the numbers 1, 2, 3. When performing the task, it is not necessary to redraw the table. It is enough to write down the number of the column and the content of the missing element.
COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERIMENTS
F. REDY AND L. PASTER
C3. Using the contents of the text “Comparative characteristic of the experiments of F. Redi and L. Pasteur” and knowledge of the course, explain what meat and meat broth are in the described experiments and why they were needed.
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(other formulations of the answer are allowed that do not distort its meaning) |
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The columns of the table should be filled as follows: 1) Object of study. 2) Flasks with a neck in the form of a swan neck, spirit lamp. 3) Open cans without gauze. |
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Three columns of the table are correctly filled. |
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Correctly filled in any two columns of the table. |
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Any one column of the table is correctly filled. |
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All columns are filled incorrectly or not filled. |
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Maximum score |
C3. The correct answer should contain the following elements:
1) Meat and meat broth are nutrient media.
2) Meat - an environment for the development of larvae of flies.
3) Meat broth - a medium for the development of bacteria and spores of fungi.